Repository for Oil and Gas Energy Research (ROGER)

Abstract:
The potential hazards and risks associated with well-stimulation in unconventional oil and gas development (hydraulic fracturing, acid fracturing, and matrix acidizing) have been investigated and evaluated and federal and state regulations requiring chemical disclosure for well-stimulation have been implemented as part of an overall risk management strategy for unconventional oil and gas development. Similar evaluations for chemicals used in other routine oil and gas development activities, such as maintenance acidizing, gravel packing, and well drilling, have not been previously conducted, in part due to a lack of reliable information concerning on-field chemical-use. In this study, we compare chemical-use between routine activities and the more closely regulated well-stimulation activities using data collected by the South Coast Air Quality Monitoring District (SCAQMD), which mandates the reporting of both unconventional and routine on-field chemical-use for parts of Southern California. Analysis of this data shows that there is significant overlap in chemical-use between so-called unconventional activities and routine activities conducted for well maintenance, well-completion, or rework. A comparison within the SCAQMD shows a significant overlap between both types and amounts of chemicals used for well-stimulation treatments included under State mandatory-disclosure regulations and routine treatments that are not included under State regulations. A comparison between SCAQMD chemical-use for routine treatments and state-wide chemical-use for hydraulic fracturing also showed close similarity in chemical-use between activities covered under chemical disclosure requirements (e.g. hydraulic fracturing) and many other oil and gas field activities. The results of this study indicate regulations and risk assessments focused exclusively on chemicals used in well-stimulation activities may underestimate potential hazard or risk from overall oil field chemical-use.

Abstract:
Beginning in the 1860s, fracturing was used to stimulate or rather shoot rock formations for oil production. To increase both initial flow and ultimate extraction, liquid and solidified nitroglycerin was used in these years. The concept of (hydraulic) fracturing with pressure instead of explosives grew in the 1930s. Beginning in 1953, water-based fluids were developed using different types of gelling agents. Nowadays, aqueous fluids such as acid, water, brines, and water-based foams are used in most fracturing treatments. The breakdown of the fluids to decrease viscosity is mostly carried out by use of oxidizing agents. Thereby, the technology is facing concerns regarding microseismicity, air emissions, water consumption, and the endangerment of groundwater due to the risk of perforating protective layers and the ooze of chemicals through the surface. Furthermore, particularly both cross-linking and breaking agents pose serious risks for humans respectively are environmentally hazardous in terms of eco-toxicity—while the degradation effect of common oxidizing agents is relatively low in cases of high-temperature fracturing treatments. According to our comparative viscosity tests, the viscosity of both common hydrogels with and without oxidizing agents can be reduced to the same level when heated to 130 °C or above. Furthermore, in both cases no non-Newtonian behavior could be observed after the temperature treatment (anymore). Therefore, we developed a hydrogel that allows for optimized cross-linking without toxic linkers and that can be dissolved without environmentally hazardous chemicals. Furthermore, it avoids the clogging of pores by hydrogel residues and improves oil and gas exploitation.

Abstract:
Produced water is a significant waste stream that can be treated and reused; however, the removal of production chemicals—such as those added in hydraulic fracturing—must be addressed. One motivation for treating and reusing produced water is that current disposal methods—typically consisting of deep well injection and percolation in infiltration pits—are being limited. Furthermore, oil and gas production often occurs in arid regions where there is demand for new water sources. In this paper, hydraulic fracturing chemical additive data from California are used as a case study where physical-chemical and biodegradation data are summarized and used to screen for appropriate produced water treatment technologies. The data indicate that hydraulic fracturing chemicals are largely treatable; however, data are missing for 24 of the 193 chemical additives identified. More than one-third of organic chemicals have data indicating biodegradability, suggesting biological treatment would be effective. Adsorption-based methods and partitioning of chemicals into oil for subsequent separation is expected to be effective for approximately one-third of chemicals. Volatilization-based treatment methods (e.g. air stripping) will only be effective for approximately 10% of chemicals. Reverse osmosis is a good catch-all with over 70% of organic chemicals expected to be removed efficiently. Other technologies such as electrocoagulation and advanced oxidation are promising but lack demonstration. Chemicals of most concern due to prevalence, toxicity, and lack of data include propargyl alcohol, 2-mercaptoethyl alcohol, tetrakis hydroxymethyl-phosphonium sulfate, thioglycolic acid, 2-bromo-3-nitrilopropionamide, formaldehyde polymers, polymers of acrylic acid, quaternary ammonium compounds, and surfactants (e.g. ethoxylated alcohols). Future studies should examine the fate of hydraulic fracturing chemicals in produced water treatment trains to demonstrate removal and clarify interactions between upstream and downstream processes.

Abstract:
The rapidly increasing implementations of oilfield technologies such as horizontal wells and multistage hydraulic fracturing, particularly in unconventional formations, have expanded the need for fresh water in many oilfield locations. In the meantime, it is costly for services companies and operators to properly dispose large volumes of produced water, generated annually at about 21 billion barrels in the United States alone. The high operating costs in obtaining fresh water and dealing with produced water have motivated scientists and engineers, especially in recent years, to use produced water in place of fresh water to formulate well treatment fluids. The objective of this brief review is to provide a summary of the up-to-date technologies of reusing oilfield produced water in preparations of a series of crosslinked fluids implemented mainly in hydraulic fracturing operations. The crosslinked fluids formulated with produced water include borate- and metal-crosslinked guar and derivatized guar fluids, as well as other types of crosslinked fluid systems such as crosslinked synthetic polymer fluids and crosslinked derivatized cellulose fluids. The borate-crosslinked guar fluids have been successfully formulated with produced water and used in oilfield operations with bottomhole temperatures up to about 250 °F. The produced water sources involved showed total dissolved solids (TDS) up to about 115,000 mg/L and hardness up to about 11,000 mg/L. The metal-crosslinked guar fluids prepared with produced water were successfully used in wells at bottomhole temperatures up to about 250 °F, with produced water TDS up to about 300,000 mg/L and hardness up to about 44,000 mg/L. The Zr-crosslinked carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar (CMHPG) fluids have been successfully made with produced water and implemented in operations with bottomhole temperatures at about 250+ °F, with produced water TDS up to about 280,000 mg/L and hardness up to about 91,000 mg/L. In most of the cases investigated, the produced water involved was either untreated, or the treatments were minimum such as simple filtration without significantly changing the concentrations of monovalent and divalent ions in the water. Due to the compositional similarity (high salinity and hardness) between produced water and seawater, crosslinked fluids formulated with seawater for offshore and onshore jobs were also included. The crosslinked guar and derivatized guar fluids have been successfully formulated with seawater for operations at bottomhole temperatures up to about 300 °F. Operating costs have been significantly reduced when produced water or seawater is used to formulate fracturing fluids in place of fresh water. With various challenges and limitations still existing, the paper emphasizes the needs for new developments and further expansion of produced water reuse in oilfield operations.

Abstract:
The objective of this study was to understand the adsorption ability of a surfactant and a non-surfactant chemical additive used in hydraulic fracturing onto shale and GAC. Experiments were performed at varying temperatures and sodium chloride concentrations to establish these impacts on the adsorption of the furfural (a non-surfactant) and 2-Butoxyethanol (2-BE) (a surfactant). Experiments were carried out in continuously mixed batch experiments with Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm modeling. The results of the experiments showed that adsorption of these compounds onto shale does not occur, which may allow these compounds to return to the surface in flowback and produced waters. The adsorption potential for these chemicals onto GAC follows the assumptions of the Langmuir model more strongly than those of the Freundlich model. The results show uptake of furfural and 2-BE occurs within 23 h in the presence of DI water, 0.1 mol L(-1) sodium chloride, and in lab synthesized hydraulic fracturing brine. Based on the data, 83% of the furfural and 62% of the 2-BE was adsorbed using GAC.

Abstract:
Unconventional oil and gas operations using hydraulic fracturing can contaminate surface and groundwater with endocrine-disrupting chemicals. We have previously shown that 23 of 24 commonly used hydraulic fracturing chemicals can activate or inhibit the estrogen, androgen, glucocorticoid, progesterone, and/or thyroid receptors in a human endometrial cancer cell reporter gene assay and that mixtures can behave synergistically, additively, or antagonistically on these receptors. In the current study, pregnant female C57Bl/6 dams were exposed to a mixture of 23 commonly used unconventional oil and gas chemicals at approximately 3, 30, 300, and 3000 μ g/kg·d, flutamide at 50 mg/kg·d, or a 0.2% ethanol control vehicle via their drinking water from gestational day 11 through birth. This prenatal exposure to oil and gas operation chemicals suppressed pituitary hormone concentrations across experimental groups (prolactin, LH, FSH, and others), increased body weights, altered uterine and ovary weights, increased heart weights and collagen deposition, disrupted folliculogenesis, and other adverse health effects. This work suggests potential adverse developmental and reproductive health outcomes in humans and animals exposed to these oil and gas operation chemicals, with adverse outcomes observed even in the lowest dose group tested, equivalent to concentrations reported in drinking water sources. These endpoints suggest potential impacts on fertility, as previously observed in the male siblings, which require careful assessment in future studies.

Abstract:
Chemistry of flowback and produced waters from unconventional gas wells is controlled by reactions between fluids injected for well stimulation and the target geologic formation. Release of salts and metals from the formations are well documented, however, the fate of organic additives under down-hole conditions is not. One outcrop and six core samples of Marcellus Shale were obtained from locations throughout Pennsylvania and sequentially extracted to determine metal associations within various mineral matrices. Metal concentrations in different matrices varied significantly across the shale samples analyzed. In comparison to core samples, lower metal and salt concentrations were detected in the shale outcrop likely due to carbonate and salt dissolution during oxidative weathering processes. The shale outcrop was reacted with synthetic hydraulic fracturing fluids (SFFs) of high or low organic content to study the fate of organic additives and their influence on metal mobilization. The organic content of the fluid and high pressure and temperature (HPT; 1200 PSI and 80°C) conditions had little effect on metal dissolution. However, the organic composition changed significantly depending on the reaction conditions (pH and temperature effects). Major findings of this work include the following: (1) addition of oxidants to hydraulic fracturing fluids promotes degradation of organic additives in hydraulic fracturing fluids; (2) mineral composition of shale will effect solution pH, and low pH conditions will promote organic degradation and metal mobilization during hydraulic fracturing; and (3) surfactant additives are persistent under HPT conditions and will return in flowback waters.

Abstract:
2,2-Dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide (DBNPA) is a major biocide in hydraulic fracturing fluids. Most biocides in fracturing fluids are considered to have low acute toxicity to mammals, but little information is available in the literature regarding the toxic actions of DBNPA on mammalian cells. This information is important to suggest the DBNPA toxicity on wild mammals. In this study, the effects of DBNPA on rat thymocytes were studied using flow cytometric techniques in order to further characterize the cytotoxicity of DBNPA for its safe use. DBNPA at 3–7.5 μM produced a steep concentration-dependent increase in cell lethality. At 5 μM, DBNPA significantly depolarized the membranes with a disturbance of the asymmetrical distribution of membrane phospholipids. The lethal effect of DBNPA was completely abolished under cold conditions, and was augmented in the presence of ethanol. It is suggested that the lethal action of DBNPA is linked to changes in membrane fluidity. Because the concentration-dependent change of DBNPA-induced lethal action was very steep under in vitro conditions, the adverse actions of DBNPA on wild mammals are concerning, even though such reports have not yet surfaced.

Abstract:
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identified 1,173 chemicals associated with hydraulic fracturing fluids, flowback, or produced water, of which 1,026 (87%) lack chronic oral toxicity values for human health assessments. To facilitate the ranking and prioritization of chemicals that lack toxicity values, it may be useful to employ toxicity estimates from quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models. Here we describe an approach for applying the results of a QSAR model from the TOPKAT program suite, which provides estimates of the rat chronic oral lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL). Of the 1,173 chemicals, TOPKAT was able to generate LOAEL estimates for 515 (44%). To address the uncertainty associated with these estimates, we assigned qualitative confidence scores (high, medium, or low) to each TOPKAT LOAEL estimate, and found 481 to be high-confidence. For 48 chemicals that had both a high-confidence TOPKAT LOAEL estimate and a chronic oral reference dose from EPA’s Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) database, Spearman rank correlation identified 68% agreement between the two values (permutation p-value = 1x10-11). These results provide support for the use of TOPKAT LOAEL estimates in identifying and prioritizing potentially hazardous chemicals. High-confidence TOPKAT LOAELs were available for 389 of 1,026 hydraulic fracturing-related chemicals that lack chronic oral RfVs and OSFs from EPA-identified sources, including a subset of chemicals that are frequently used in hydraulic fracturing fluids.

Abstract:
Concerns have been raised about potential public health effects that may arise if hydraulic fracturing-related chemicals were to impact drinking water resources. This study presents an overview of the chronic oral toxicity values?specifically, chronic oral reference values (RfVs) for noncancer effects, and oral slope factors (OSFs) for cancer?that are available for a list of 1,173 chemicals that the United States (US) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identified as being associated with hydraulic fracturing, including 1,076 chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids, and 134 chemicals detected in flowback or produced waters from hydraulically fractured wells. EPA compiled RfVs and OSFs using six governmental and intergovernmental data sources. 90 (8%) of the 1,076 chemicals reported in hydraulic fracturing fluids and 83 (62%) of the 134 chemicals reported in flowback/produced water had a chronic oral RfV or OSF available from one or more of the six sources. Furthermore, of the 36 chemicals reported in hydraulic fracturing fluids in at least 10% of wells nationwide (identified from EPA?s analysis of the FracFocus Chemical Disclosure Registry 1.0), 8 chemicals (22%) have an available chronic oral RfV. The lack of chronic oral RfVs and OSFs for the majority of these chemicals highlights the significant knowledge gap that exists to assess the potential human health hazards associated with hydraulic fracturing.

Abstract:
Much interest is directed at the chemical structure of hydraulic fracturing (HF) additives in unconventional gas exploitation. To bridge the gap between existing alphabetical disclosures by function / CAS number and emerging scientific contributions on fate and toxicity, we review the structural properties which motivate HF applications, and which determine environmental fate and toxicity. Our quantitative overview relied on voluntary U.S. disclosures evaluated from the FracFocus registry by different sources and on a House of Representatives (?Waxman?) list. Out of over 1000 reported substances, classification by chemistry yielded succinct subsets able to illustrate the rationale of their use, and physicochemical properties relevant for environmental fate, toxicity and chemical analysis. While many substances were non-toxic, frequent disclosures also included notorious groundwater contaminants like petroleum hydrocarbons (solvents), precursors of endocrine disruptors like nonylphenols (non-emulsifiers), toxic propargyl alcohol (corrosion inhibitor), tetramethyl ammonium (clay stabilizer), biocides or strong oxidants. Application of highly oxidizing chemicals, together with occasional disclosures of putative delayed acids and complexing agents (i.e., compounds designed to react in the subsurface) suggests that relevant transformation products may be formed. To adequately investigate such reactions, available information is not sufficient, but instead a full disclosure of HF additives is necessary.

Abstract:
Hydraulic-fracturing fluids and wastewater from unconventional oil and natural gas development contain hundreds of substances with the potential to contaminate drinking water. Challenges to conducting well-designed human exposure and health studies include limited information about likely etiologic agents. We systematically evaluated 1021 chemicals identified in hydraulic-fracturing fluids (n=925), wastewater (n=132), or both (n=36) for potential reproductive and developmental toxicity to triage those with potential for human health impact. We searched the REPROTOX database using Chemical Abstract Service registry numbers for chemicals with available data and evaluated the evidence for adverse reproductive and developmental effects. Next, we determined which chemicals linked to reproductive or developmental toxicity had water quality standards or guidelines. Toxicity information was lacking for 781 (76%) chemicals. Of the remaining 240 substances, evidence suggested reproductive toxicity for 103 (43%), developmental toxicity for 95 (40%), and both for 41 (17%). Of these 157 chemicals, 67 had or were proposed for a federal water quality standard or guideline. Our systematic screening approach identified a list of 67 hydraulic fracturing-related candidate analytes based on known or suspected toxicity. Incorporation of data on potency, physicochemical properties, and environmental concentrations could further prioritize these substances for future drinking water exposure assessments or reproductive and developmental health studies.

Abstract:
Chemical additives used for hydraulic fracturing and matrix acidizing of oil reservoirs were reviewed and priority chemicals of concern needing further environmental risk assessment, treatment demonstration, or evaluation of occupational hazards were identified. We evaluated chemical additives used for well stimulation in California, the third largest oil producing state in the USA, by the mass and frequency of use, as well as toxicity. The most frequently used chemical additives in oil development were gelling agents, cross-linkers, breakers, clay control agents, iron and scale control agents, corrosion inhibitors, biocides, and various impurities and product stabilizers used as part of commercial mixtures. Hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids, used for matrix acidizing and other purposes, were reported infrequently. A large number and mass of solvents and surface active agents were used, including quaternary ammonia compounds (QACs) and nonionic surfactants. Acute toxicity was evaluated and many chemicals with low hazard to mammals were identified as potentially hazardous to aquatic environments. Based on an analysis of quantities used, toxicity, and lack of adequate hazard evaluation, QACs, biocides, and corrosion inhibitors were identified as priority chemicals of concern that deserve further investigation.

Abstract:
Nearly 70 years old, hydraulic fracturing is a core technique for stimulating hydrocarbon production in a majority of oil and gas reservoirs. Complex fluids are implemented in nearly every step of the fracturing process, most significantly to generate and sustain fractures and transport and distribute proppant particles during and following fluid injection. An extremely wide range of complex fluids are used: naturally occurring polysaccharide and synthetic polymer solutions, aqueous physical and chemical gels, organic gels, micellar surfactant solutions, emulsions, and foams. These fluids are loaded over a wide range of concentrations with particles of varying sizes and aspect ratios and are subjected to extreme mechanical and environmental conditions. We describe the settings of hydraulic fracturing (framed by geology), fracturing mechanics and physics, and the critical role that non-Newtonian fluid dynamics and complex fluids play in the hydraulic fracturing process. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Volume 7 is June 07, 2016. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.

Abstract:
Growth of the unconventional gas industry is predicted to continue to be an important component of the global energy landscape. The rapid expansion of shale and tight gas development has raised many environmental and human health concerns, particularly in regards to ground and surface water contamination. The unconventional gas industry has begun to transition toward the use of hydraulic fracturing chemicals that pose minimal environmental and human health hazards in order to mitigate the risks associated with possible chemical containment failure. Integrated chemical hazard evaluation has been facilitated by an adapted index-based approach to combine noncommensurate multiparameter chemical hazard data into a single score value. Comparative analysis of existing chemical hazard index scoring systems as well as the formulation of a novel hydraulic fracturing fluid greenness assessment system revealed several important considerations for index development and application. Index scores calculated using the investigated index systems highlighted the need for informed, optimized hazard class selection as input for score determination, the maintenance of hazard category intensity during parameter transformation, as well as representative hazard class and chemical component mathematical weightings, and robust aggregation techniques for final score calculation. Continued research should work to model the combined hazard posed by individual chemicals while considering the effect of dilution as well as incorporate additional index metrics beyond hazard intensity. Fully disclosed index systems, applied with complete knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses, provide useful monitoring and communication tools to promote environmental-best practices in the unconventional gas industry.

Abstract:
The chemical additives used in fracturing fluids can be used as tracers of water contamination caused by hydraulic fracturing operations. For this purpose, a complete chemical characterization is necessary using advanced analytical techniques. Liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/Q-TOF-MS) was used to identify chemical additives present in flowback and produced waters. Accurate mass measurements of main ions and fragments were used to characterize the major components of fracking fluids. Sodium adducts turned out to be the main molecular adduct ions detected for some additives due to oxygen-rich structures. Among the classes of chemical components analyzed by mass spectrometry include gels (guar gum), biocides (glutaraldehyde and alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride), and surfactants (cocamidopropyl dimethylamines, cocamidopropyl hydroxysultaines, and cocamidopropyl derivatives). The capabilities of accurate mass and MS-MS fragmentation are explored for the unequivocal identification of these compounds. A special emphasis is given to the mass spectrometry elucidation approaches used to identify a major class of hydraulic fracturing compounds, surfactants.

Abstract:
Little is known of the attenuation of chemical mixtures created for hydraulic fracturing within the natural environment. A synthetic hydraulic fracturing fluid was developed from disclosed industry formulas and produced for laboratory experiments using commercial additives in use by Marcellus shale field crews. The experiments employed an internationally accepted standard method (OECD 301A) to evaluate aerobic biodegradation potential of the fluid mixture by monitoring the removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from an aqueous solution by activated sludge and lake water microbial consortia for two substrate concentrations and four salinities. Microbial degradation removed from 57 % to more than 90 % of added DOC within 6.5 days, with higher removal efficiency at more dilute concentrations and little difference in overall removal extent between sludge and lake microbe treatments. The alcohols isopropanol and octanol were degraded to levels below detection limits while the solvent acetone accumulated in biological treatments through time. Salinity concentrations of 40 g/L or more completely inhibited degradation during the first 6.5 days of incubation with the synthetic hydraulic fracturing fluid even though communities were pre-acclimated to salt. Initially diverse microbial communities became dominated by 16S rRNA sequences affiliated with Pseudomonas and other Pseudomonadaceae after incubation with the synthetic fracturing fluid, taxa which may be involved in acetone production. These data expand our understanding of constraints on the biodegradation potential of organic compounds in hydraulic fracturing fluids under aerobic conditions in the event that they are accidentally released to surface waters and shallow soils.

Abstract:
Biocides are critical components of hydraulic fracturing ("fracking") fluids used for unconventional shale gas development. Bacteria may cause bioclogging and inhibit gas extraction, produce toxic hydrogen sulfide, and induce corrosion leading to downhole equipment failure. The use of biocides such as glutaraldehyde and quaternary ammonium compounds has spurred a public concern and debate among regulators regarding the impact of inadvertent releases into the environment on ecosystem and human health. This work provides a critical review of the potential fate and toxicity of biocides used in hydraulic fracturing operations. We identified the following physicochemical and toxicological aspects as well as knowledge gaps that should be considered when selecting biocides: (1) uncharged species will dominate in the aqueous phase and be subject to degradation and transport whereas charged species will sorb to soils and be less bioavailable; (2) many biocides are short-lived or degradable through abiotic and biotic processes, but some may transform into more toxic or persistent compounds; (3) understanding of biocides' fate under downhole conditions (high pressure, temperature, and salt and organic matter concentrations) is limited; (4) several biocidal alternatives exist, but high cost, high energy demands, and/or formation of disinfection byproducts limits their use. This review may serve as a guide for environmental risk assessment and identification of microbial control strategies to help develop a sustainable path for managing hydraulic fracturing fluids.

Abstract:

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing fluids are chemical mixtures used to enhance oil and gas extraction. There are concerns that fracturing fluids are hazardous and that their release into the environment - by direct injection to coal and shale formations or as residue in produced water - may have effects on ecosystems, water quality and public health. This study aimed to characterise the acute cytotoxicity of a hydraulic fracturing fluid using a human gastrointestinal cell line and, using this data, contribute to the understanding of potential human health risks posed by coal seam gas (CSG) extraction in Queensland, Australia. Previous published research on the health effects of hydraulic fracturing fluids has been limited to desktop studies of individual chemicals. As such, this study is one of the first attempts to characterise the toxicity of a hydraulic fracturing mixture using laboratory methods. The fracturing fluid was determined to be cytotoxic, with half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) values across mixture variations ranging between 25 and 51 mM. When used by industry, these fracturing fluids would be at concentrations of over 200 mM before injection into the coal seam. A 5-fold dilution would be sufficient to reduce the toxicity of the fluids to below the detection limit of the assay. It is unlikely that human exposure would occur at these high ('before use') concentrations and likely that the fluids would be diluted during use. Thus, it can be inferred that the level of acute risk to human health associated with the use of these fracturing fluids is low. However, a thorough exposure assessment and additional chronic and targeted toxicity assessments are required to conclusively determine human health risks.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing has been used by the oil and gas industry as a way to boost hydrocarbon production since 1947. Recent advances in fracturing technologies, such as multistage fracturing in horizontal wells, are responsible for the latest hydrocarbon production boom in the US. Linear or crosslinked guars are the most commonly used fluids in traditional fracturing operations. The main functions of these fluids are to open/propagate the fractures and transport proppants into the fractures. Proppants are usually applied to form a thin layer between fracture faces to prop the fractures open at the end of the fracturing process. Chemical breakers are used to break the polymers at the end of the fracturing process so as to provide highly conductive fractures. Concerns over fracture conductivity damage by viscous fluids in ultra-tight formations found in unconventional reservoirs prompted the industry to develop an alternative fracturing fluid called “slickwater”. It consists mainly of water with a very low concentration of linear polymer. The low concentration polymer serves primarily to reduce the friction loss along the flow lines. Proppant-carrying capability of this type of fluids is still a subject of debate among industry experts. Constraints on local water availability and the potential for damage to formations have led the industry to develop other types of fracturing fluids such as viscoelastic surfactants and energized fluids. This article reviews both the traditional viscous fluids used in conventional hydraulic fracturing operations as well as the new family of fluids being developed for both traditional and unconventional reservoirs. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40735.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing (HF), a method to enhance oil and gas production, has become increasingly common throughout the U.S. As such, it is important to characterize the chemicals found in HF fluids to evaluate potential environmental fate, including fate in treatment systems, and human health impacts. Eighty-one common HF chemical additives were identified and categorized according to their functions. Physical and chemical characteristics of these additives were determined using publicly available chemical information databases. Fifty-four of the compounds are organic and twenty-seven of these are considered readily biodegradable. Twenty-one chemicals have high theoretical chemical oxygen demand and are used in concentrations that present potential treatment challenges. Most of the HF chemicals evaluated were non-toxic or of low toxicity and only three were classified as Category 2 oral toxins according to standards in the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals; however, toxicity information was not located for thirty of the HF chemicals evaluated. Volatilization is not expected to be a significant exposure pathway for most HF chemicals. Gaps in toxicity and other chemical properties suggest deficiencies in the current state of knowledge, highlighting the need for further assessment to understand potential issues associated with HF chemicals in the environment.

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Abstract:
We examined the efficacy of multiple biocides that are commonly used to control sulfate-reducing bacteria in fracturing fluids in shale natural gas formations. Seven biocides (tetrakis [hydroxymethyl] phosphonium sulfate, sodium hypochlorite, didecyldimethylammonium chloride, tri-n-butyl tetradecyl phosphonium chloride, glutaraldehyde, a glutaraldehyde and alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride blend, and a glutaraldehyde alkyldimethylethylbenzylammonium chloride blend) were examined. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were determined using planktonic cells and biofilms of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans strain G20 and a sulfate-reducing enrichment culture that was obtained from a Barnett Shale frac pond. All biocides had higher MIC values for biofilms compared to planktonic cells from these two cultures. Higher concentrations of all biocides, except didecyldimethylammonium chloride, were required to kill planktonic cells of G20 that were exposed to humic acid. These results clearly indicate that biofilm formation by sulfate-reducing bacteria, as well as organic loading rates, negatively impact the efficacy of biocides. This work provides valuable information concerning the effects of biofilm formation and organic loading on biocide MIC values. These MIC data can be used as a guide for the control of microbial growth in future frac jobs, which should result in fewer incidences of sulfide production and corrosion in shale natural gas wells. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract:
Mass balance principles were applied to a four-compartment partition model for 12 different hazardous components of hydraulic fracturing fluid additives used in 47 completed natural gas wells in the Marcellus Shale. Spill scenarios were modeled as if 1000 gallons of diluted additive were discharged into a surface water body or onto soil. Resulting concentrations were ranked according to magnitude, providing a relative comparison of quantities to be expected in each compartment. Highest mass concentrations in the water, soil and biota compartments were due to sodium hydroxide, 4,4-dimethyl oxazolidine, and hydrochloric acid. 4,4-dimethyl oxazolidine ranked highest in the air compartment.