Repository for Oil and Gas Energy Research (ROGER)

Abstract:
The COVID-19 epidemic had unprecedented impacts on oil and gas markets. Vanishing energy demand in this sector led to significant drop of oil and gas prices over a short period of time. Some operators choose to curtail their production at particular wells, while others did not. In this paper, we look at two examples one from an unconventional gas play and the other from an unconventional oil play in the United States. Through public productions data, we tried to decipher the decision process of operators in these areas and compare the differences in shut-in choices.

Abstract:
We already know that the construction of shale gas extraction infrastructure exacerbates soil erosion in vulnerable areas. We are not clear however, about whether the completed well pads and pipelines continue to influence soil erosion after the construction is completed. We applied high-resolution remote sensing images and DEM data from 2014 and 2017 and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model to calculate how the layout of the well pads and pipelines in a shale gas development area affected soil erosion. We used Geodetector to analyze the factors that affected the soil erosion intensity around the well pads. The results showed that about 0.02% and 0.12% of the total erosion in the shale gas development zone was directly caused by the completed well pads and pipelines in 2014 and 2017, respectively. Most of the erosion was related to the completed pipelines. The completed shale gas well pads affected the soil erosion intensity up to 90 and 60 m from the pads in 2014 and 2017, respectively. The soil erosion around the completed pipelines was mainly from the soil surface over the pipeline and had little effect on the surroundings. The main influences on the soil erosion intensity at different distances from the well pads were land use and slope, and the interactions between them. We suggest that, when developing new shale gas extraction facilities, gas pipelines should be arranged in gently sloping areas, and vegetation should be planted on the bare soil over the pipelines to reduce soil erosion.

Abstract:
In the last decade, unconventional oil and gas (UOG) has changed the world’s energy landscapes, often outpacing governments’ efforts to regulate it. Yet, few studies focus on the processes of governance, particularly on questions of procedural equity. Here we examine the process of the 2014 Colorado Oil and Gas Task Force (TF), which was established to address regulatory conflicts over drilling, particularly along the Northern Colorado Front Range. The TF aimed to create a level playing field for influencing decision-making. However, we find that several power mechanisms were deployed by the state and the industry, ensuring that those with the least opportunity to meaningfully influence outcomes were also most likely to be impacted by the TF’s regulatory recommendations had the least opportunity to meaningfully influence the process and its outcomes. Thus we advance existing literature on procedural injustice by focusing on the underlying power mechanisms that help structure procedural injustice in these processes.

Abstract:
Orphaned oil and gas wells are abandoned wells for which the cost of environmental impacts usually falls on governments and the general public. Government agencies responsible for well plugging often face funding shortfalls and many orphaned wells remain unplugged. To address this and support the oil and natural gas industry, federal governments are already spending, or considering spending, billions of dollars to plug orphaned oil and gas wells. Here, we analyze oil and gas data for the United States and Canada and identify policy recommendations that can best address environmental impacts of abandoned and orphaned wells. At least 116,245 wells across 32 states and four Canadian provinces/territories are operated by companies filing for bankruptcy in the first half of 2020, which may be an indication that many wells will be orphaned in the near future. Moreover, there are 4,700,000 historic and active oil and gas wells in the United States and another 790,000 in Canada. Of these, 2,000,000 and 310,000 wells are active in the United States and Canada, respectively. Thus, three of five wells ever drilled in the United States are currently inactive (2,700,000 wells), but only one in three are plugged (1,500,000 wells). Plugging involves isolating zones containing oil, gas, and water and is the main strategy for well abandonment. If the orphaned well stimulus funding comes through, tens of thousands of wells will be plugged within a few years. Well plugging at this scale far exceeds current rates of plugging, and it is important that we work to ensure long-term environmental benefits of well abandonment to water, air, climate, ecosystems, and human health. Minimizing environmental impacts of the millions of abandoned and orphaned wells in the United States, Canada, and abroad will allow for an economically beneficial and environmentally safe transition to a carbon-neutral economy.

Abstract:
Poland has been estimated to possess large volumes of technically recoverable shale gas resources, which has raised national hopes for increasing energy security and building export capacity. In this paper, we aim to examine political claims and hopes that Poland could achieve natural gas self-sufficiency and even become a gas exporter by harnessing domestic shale potential. We do so by relying on well-by-well production experience from the Barnett Shale in the USA to explore what scope of shale gas extraction, in terms of the number of wells, would likely be required to achieve such national expectations. With average well productivity equal to the Barnett Shale, at least 420 wells per year would be necessary to meet the domestic demand of 20 Bcm in 2030. Adding Poland’s potential export capacity of five Bcm of gas per year would necessitate at least 540 wells per year. Such a significant amount of drilling and hydraulic fracturing would require reconsideration and verification of national energy security plans and expectations surrounding shale gas production. A more informed public debate on technical aspects of extraction would be required, as extensive fracking operations could potentially have implications in terms of environmental risks and local land-use conflicts.

Abstract:
China has stepped up its oil and gas development including unconventional resources as foreign dependence for oil and gas increased. Environmental impacts from the development phase has also caused widespread concern. To better understand environment impacts from current oil and gas development in China, a hybrid life cycle analysis (H-LCA) model was used to estimate the impact of six fields at the development stage based on data from 2017. The full environmental impact and full impact intensity (i.e., full environmental impact per unit of output by calorific value) of shale gas, conventional natural gas and oil development in China was compared and analyzed by eliminating well depth. Shale gas has 12.5% more environmental impact than conventional natural gas. Environmental impact of natural gas development is roughly 1.5 to 2 times that of conventional oil. Development of gas in Sichuan Basin have the greatest environmental impact, following southeast coast, Song Liao Basin, and Junggar Basin. However, the full impact intensity of shale gas development is more than five times that of conventional natural gas, but natural gas is still greener than conventional oil. The greatest full impact intensity is found in Junggar Basin, following Song Liao Basin and southeastern coast. From the comparison of full environmental impact and full impact intensity under per well depth, it's found that both of these are not positively correlated with reservoir depth and well depth even in the same basin. More attention should be paid to driving effects of specific reservoir developments and geological conditions.

Abstract:
Drawing on ethnographic research in two locations facing the prospect of shale gas exploration in Poland and the UK, I analyse how the future can be simultaneously predetermined and undetermined. Local actors handle this complex experience by relating to fracking infrastructures, fixing the materialities of shale gas as well as cultivating an air of conspiracy around the intricacies of gas developments. I focus on the everyday to broaden the scope of recent scholarly writing on resource indeterminacy that explores how corporate strategies create the futures of resource extraction. The contradictory temporalities that these strategies generate have to be reconciled at the sites of extraction. I call for opening our theorisations up to how resource indeterminacy and assertions of predetermined futures are mediated in the everyday contexts of noncorporate actors. By considering these daily forms of engagement with resource exploration, we gain a more realistic perspective on the potentialities of extraction.

Abstract:
Over the past two decades, hydraulic fracturing, commonly known as ‘fracking’, in Colorado has increased crude oil and natural gas production exponentially. This growth continues to benefit the Colorado economy and employs hundreds of thousands of residents across the state (U.S. EIA 2020a; Hochman 2019). However, despite these economic benefits, studies over the past ten years demonstrate that fracking presents serious environmental and human health risks, particularly to those who live near wells. Hydraulically fractured wells can release toxic hydrocarbons into the atmosphere as well as contaminate land and water supplies, which puts Colorado residents living within 1 kilometer of these wells at an increased risk for adverse dermal and upper respiratory symptoms (Jackson et al. 2014, 347-348; Rabinowitz et al. 2015, 25). Additionally, people living within ½ mile of a well are at an increased risk for developing cancer (McKenzie et al. 2012, 85). Colorado Senate Bill 19-181 responded to this issue in 2019 by delegating regulation of fracking to local jurisdictions (SB 19-181). However, this legislation attempts to solve a statewide issue at a local level and is therefore an inconsistent and insufficient response. For this reason, I urge the Colorado state government to reclaim the authority to regulate fracking and implement a policy to ban all wells within 3000 feet of residential areas and schools, effective 2 years from date of passage. This measure will reduce residents’ exposure to toxic chemicals and their risk of disease while allowing the fracking industry to continue to benefit the Colorado economy and energy sector.

Abstract:
Shale Energy development in the United States has made the community-level impacts of new energy technologies a national concern, resulting in a boom in attention from academics, journalists, and others seeking to learn from the community experiences. A meta-analysis by Walsh et al. (2020) depicts the uneven geographical footprint of research performed in these communities, possibly leading to a phenomenon of research fatigue in communities that have hosted a high number of social science research attempts. In order to better understand and address research fatigue, especially in energy boom communities, we use focus groups and an online-survey of Shale Energy community social scientists to explore the perceived scope, causes, and consequences of and solutions to research fatigue in social research on energy boomtowns. The results show that research fatigue is indeed a major barrier for many researchers in energy impacted communities, but significant geographical variability exists. Furthermore, respondents indicated numerous mitigation strategies to prevent or otherwise reduce research fatigue through better research design and community outreach; however, they also emphasize that real barriers in the nature of scholarly research and the structure of academia prevent the implementation of these strategies. Many of the respondents supported online trainings or forums to inform new energy social science scholars of ways to reduce or mitigate research fatigue and design effective community outreach programs.

Abstract:
This paper explores the socio-economic legacy created by an extractive industry as it developed, or sought to develop, in nine different communities or regions across Australia, Canada, the United States, and Wales – drawing on mixed-method research collected between 2011 and 2018. By the early 2010s, a number of unconventional fossil fuel companies were securing land access agreements for seismic and drilling exploration in the Western Downs region of South-East Queensland, the Northern Rivers region of North-Eastern New South Wales, the states of New York and Pennsylvania, the Province of New Brunswick, and southern Wales. Stark cultural, social and environmental contrasts between communities within each nation shaped community responses to potential industry development – levels of social license for developments, community responses and subsequent unconventional fossil fuel development varied widely. This article explores the impact of the industry on community resilience. A resilient community is likely to have high social capital, including strong social networks, feelings of safety and trust, sense of belonging, diversity, citizen power and participation. These social responses to the industry, combined with the existing local contexts and the differing regulatory frameworks of each community/region, can be argued to have led to divergent effects on overall community social and economic resilience across our case studies. Power, industrial impacts, relationships, resources, social action, timing of the debates, equity concerns, and strategic decision making (or lack thereof) shaped the degree of resilience with which each community/region responded. In four of our cases, resilience declined (e.g., due to increased economic homogenisation, decreasing social connectivity and citizen power); in five cases resilience increased (e.g., the legacy created by the emergence of social movements substantially increased social connectivity, sense of belonging and citizen power).

Abstract:
Shale gas is a relatively clean-burning fossil fuel, produced by hydraulic fracturing. This technology may be harmful to the environment; therefore, environmentally friendly methods to extract shale gas have attracted considerable attention from researchers. Unlike previous studies, this study is a comprehensive investigation that uses systematic analyses and detailed field data. The environmental challenges associated with shale gas extraction, as well as measures to mitigate environmental impacts from the source to end point are detailed, using data and experience from China’s shale gas production sites. Environmental concerns are among the biggest challenges in practice, mainly including seasonal water shortages, requisition of primary farmland, leakage of drilling fluid and infiltration of flowback fluid, oil-based drill cuttings getting buried underground, and induced seismicity. China’s shale gas companies have attempted to improve methods, as well as invent new materials and devices to implement cleaner processes for the sake of protecting the environment. Through more than 10-year summary, China’s clean production model for shale gas focuses on source pollution prevention, process control, and end treatment, which yield significant results in terms of resource as well as environmental protection, and can have practical implications for shale gas production in other countries, that can be duplicated elsewhere.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing or ‘fracking’ overlays a major industrial operation on the land in areas where shale and tight hydrocarbon resources can be exploited. Every aspect of the fracking operation can cause environmental damage, although the damage from any individual well is both unlikely and usually fairly limited. Such damage has been extensively documented, giving the impression that fracking activity is bad for the environment. There is no yes or no answer to the question ‘Is fracking harmful to the environment’; rather, it is an issue that must be resolved politically rather than scientifically.

Abstract:
Technological advances in oil and gas drilling have enabled the productive extraction of natural gas in new regions. The benefits from employment and income opportunities can help stimulate economies and may be valued by local residents. At the same time, however, shale gas activity can alter natural landscapes and is associated with negative externalities, including potential groundwater contamination. While some previous research has examined the impact of shale development, our paper focuses on the local impacts in West Virginia, a state with a long history of resource-extraction and one whose economy has lagged the nation. Because of its history of resource extraction, communities in West Virginia who may have limited other economic prospects may value the activity differently. Additionally, most of the previous research used data during the initial boom, ignoring the slowdown that followed. Using the coarsened exact matching (CEM) technique, we match houses near producing wells with other similar houses, in order to examine how property values in West Virginia are affected by proximity to horizontal producing wells. This technique helps compensate for the relatively small number of housing transactions in West Virginia, ensuring we have a good counterfactual. After matching, we estimate the average capitalization effect of houses near producing shale wells. We find that the price of all houses (regardless of water source) decreases as the number of surrounding wells increases. However, we also find some evidence that this effect varies over time and that the negative capitalization effect attenuates over space.

Abstract:
This paper examines copy-and-paste regulating in hydraulic fracturing (HF) fluid disclosure regulation across US states. Using text analysis, cluster analysis and document coding, we compare HF regulations of twenty-nine states and two “model bills” drafted by the conservative American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) and the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF, an environmental NGO). In contrast to recent studies that have documented ALEC’s widespread influence across policy domains, we find limited evidence of ALEC influence in HF fluid disclosure regulations. Instead, elements of the EDF bill are more prevalent across state regulations. Yet, text similarity scores between states are higher than similarity scores between states and the EDF bill. In particular, Colorado and to a lesser extent Pennsylvania functioned as leader states for other states to follow. This indicates that state-to-state communication was a more influential channel of policy diffusion than interest group model bills in this instance. Future research should better examine processes of information sharing amongst state oil and gas regulators as regulatory text is but one channel of policy diffusion. The cluster analysis also reveals that contiguous states, often within the same shale basins, frequently have different regulations. This finding calls for a reconsideration of the current state-led environmental regulatory framework for HF, which has resulted in a patchwork of regulations across the US. Finally, through the use of novel text analysis tools, this paper adds methodological diversity to the study of policy diffusion within energy policy.

Abstract:
Water risks are one of the key issues dominating environmental debates on shale gas development. Water withdrawals and wastewater discharges in shale gas fields of mountainous areas are more complicated than in plain areas due to different climatic, topographical and hydrological conditions, which would impact water resources. This research identifies the surface water-related risks from shale gas development in mountainous areas as water shortage and water pollution. Conceptions of accessibility for both water supply and water pollution are proposed to describe the vulnerability of water resources and the exposure to water pollution. Based on a risk probability model, a water risk assessment method for mountainous areas is constructed from the perspectives of dangers, exposures and vulnerabilities. Finally, the assessment method is applied in Chongqing, China. The results show that, from 2010 to 2020, the water consumption of shale gas development has a little impact on regional water resources in total, but more significant impacts are seen in a few areas, including the seasonal water-deficient areas in Western Chongqing, the urban and suburban areas with high pollutant loadings in Midwest Chongqing, and other areas with high pollutant accessibility and vulnerable water environments. The surface water-related risks of the shale gas development in Chongqing are principally composed of low and relatively low levels of risks, which cover 60% of the total area of Chongqing and display a spatial difference of west > northeast > southeast areas. Based on Monte Carlo method, the results of uncertainty analyses show the model is reliable. This research provides a reference for water comprehensive risk assessment of shale gas development in mountainous areas.

Abstract:
Spatial setback rules are a common form of oil and gas regulation worldwide - they require minimum distances between oil and gas operations and homes and other sensitive locations. While setbacks can reduce exposure to potential harms associated with oil and gas production, they can also cause substantial quantities of oil and gas resources to be unavailable for extraction. Using both theoretical modeling and spatial analysis with GIS tools on publicly available data, we determine oil and gas resource loss under different setback distances, focusing on Colorado counties as a case study. We show that increasing setbacks results in small resource loss for setbacks up to 1500 feet, but resource loss quickly increases with longer setbacks. Approximately $4.5 billion in annual resource revenues would be lost in Colorado under 2500-foot setbacks, a distance recently proposed in Colorado Proposition 112 and California AB 345.

Abstract:
This study assessed the effectiveness of mitigation measures adopted to address the environmental effects of oil and gas industries from the perspective of compliance, cost of production, and community awareness. The research applied a case study through multi-method-qualitative and quantitative approaches. The target population of 547,368 people involved people in Takoradi, Shama and Newtown communities. A sample size of 150 was selected and categorised under 36% for Shama, 30% for Newtown and 34% for Takoradi. A combination of probability (simple random) and non-probability (cluster and convenience) sampling frames were used to access the respondents for the study. Data collection tools were limited to questionnaires and interview sessions. The descriptive statistics, Relative Importance Index (RII) and significance testing using a one-sample t-test module guided the analysis. Interview sessions were compiled into transcripts and later categorized into themes that directly reflected the patterns of the questions on the questionnaire. The conclusion rated major decisions in mitigating oil and gas impacts on the environment as first for conscious effort to package fuel and other chemicals in safe storages, followed by the use of best road systems to reduce the risk of accidents, then application of strict rules and regulations to curb impacts and lastly capacity building for participants in the oil and gas production industry. While significant measures have been adopted to mitigate the effects of oil and gas exploration, there remain challenges with effectiveness as a result of weakness in community involvement efforts, lack of motivation, weak laws and regulations and loss of respect. For effectiveness in reducing the challenges to mitigate the environmental impacts of the oil and gas production activity, policymakers, as well as the practitioners in the oil production industry, are advised to motivate people into buying into their policy to reduce such impacts.

Abstract:
The unconventional oil and gas (UOG) boom in the United States produced a surge of social science research activity about the industry's local impacts, the vast majority of which relied on local stakeholders to contribute data. Like UOG development across the United States, research on the local impacts of UOG has been geographically dispersed and uneven and mostly uncoordinated. The primary purpose of this systematic review of peer-reviewed articles and theses and dissertations is to provide an overview of the timing, spatial distribution, and methods used in research on local impacts of UOG development since 2000. The study identifies 167 unique human subject data collection efforts in U.S. UOG locations between 2000 and 2018. This overview—along with analysis of response rates and recruitment and engagement patterns—reveals risks that the recent boom in impacts research may have contributed to research fatigue on the part of some human subject research participants. The study also demonstrates challenges in deriving generalizable observations from local impacts research. Both problems are associated with the uneven geographic distribution of research across UOG locations in the U.S., researchers’ tendency to arrive at the height of development activity, inconsistent and incomplete reporting on methods in publications, and an over-reliance on accessible research subjects. Future research and scholarly reflection should evaluate constraints and factors that influence research strategies. In the meantime, the U.S. research community faces an imperative to consider opportunities to enhance and coordinate research activities in energy communities.

Abstract:
This study is set to quantify the impact of oil and gas production on the commuting pattern in the Permian Basin region. In particular, we focus on cross-county commuting that has shown a significant increase during the recent Permian Basin shale boom. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the increase is mainly driven by extended daily commuting and long-distance commuting (LDC) tied to the oil and gas industry. Our regression analysis integrating county-level commuting data and shale energy production data confirms that the impact is statistically significant. Using data from 67 counties in New Mexico and Texas between 2002 and 2017, we find that on average a one-million-BBLs increase in annual oil production leads to an increase of 100 inward commuters and an increase of 15 outward commuters. The net impact (inward – outward) is an increase of 85 commuters. By linking the empirical findings to the potential health, environmental, and socio-economic impacts of shale development with commuting being the channel of influence, further exploration suggests that the health and environmental impacts of extended daily commuting are much more significant compared to LDC. As far as the socio-economic aspect is concerned, both extended daily commuting and LDC can have significant impacts.

Abstract:
While fossil fuel interests have long played a powerful role in shaping American politics and culture, in recent decades, transnational oil and gas companies have formed hundreds of “partnerships” with American colleges and universities to fund energy research and development. Moreover, oil and gas interests have established a foothold in major universities by sponsoring research conferences, scholarships, science centers, and laboratories addressing technological advances in hydraulic fracturing methods, including leasing land for drilling on university-owned property. In this article, I critically assess some of the broad economic linkages between fossil fuel companies and higher education in the United States and the role that corporate philanthropy plays today in expanding the profits and power of the oil and gas industry, as well as the financial base and academic stature of select colleges and universities. Finally, I draw some preliminary conclusions about the growing colonization of university space and other public institutions by energy corporations.

Abstract:
The rapid development of shale gas in the United States raises potential concerns about environmental impacts. This paper examines how environmental regulations are enforced in shale gas development in Pennsylvania's Marcellus Shale development and the resulting compliance behaviors, employing the economic literature of crime and punishment as the analytical framework. A three-level hierarchical linear model (HLM) is used to analyze the enforcement and compliance performance of regulators and shale gas operators, respectively, employing data spanning from 2011 to 2017. Significant variation in the environmental non-compliance exists between both wells and operators. The empirical results suggest progressive directions for adjusting environmental enforcement strategies in Pennsylvania and provide implications and references for other regions with similar shale gas ambitions.

Abstract:
Fracking drilling has opened a discussion on the role of technological developments in economies engaged in shale oil and gas formations. Oil and natural gas production opened new possibilities for employment benefits and housing prices decreases. This paper explores, for the first time, the impact of fracking on housing prices across Oklahoma's counties, spanning the period 2000–2015. Through panel methods, the findings show a positive effect on housing prices, while this positive effect gains statistical significance only over the period after the 2006 fracking boom. The results survive a robustness check that explicitly considers distance and groundwater-dependency issues.

Abstract:
Approaching behaviour that produces environmental harm through the medium of criminal sanctions (largely involving monetary penalties) has been criticised consistently as failing to prevent environmental crimes and harms, and failing to concurrently reduce environmental re-offending. Furthermore, important state–corporate political and economic relationships exist that ensure the continuation of environmental degradation. We suggest that a way to overcome this is to re-work the current legal system to one grounded in Earth jurisprudence. Although we realise that state–corporate relationships would likely prevent the implementation of Earth jurisprudential principles, we argue such principles are essential to up-end the prioritisation of economic imperatives over ecological values within capitalist societies. To demonstrate the strength and utility of the Earth jurisprudential approach, we use the case of fracking for shale gas in the United Kingdom to examine how Earth jurisprudential principles could prevent environmental harm from occurring.

Abstract:
The 2017 Texas Water Development Board's State Water Plan predicts a 41% gap between water demand and existing supply by 2070. This reflects an overall projection, but the challenge will affect various regions of the state differently. Texas has 16 regional water planning zones characterized by distinct populations, water demands, and existing water supplies. Each is expected to face variations of pressures, such as increased agricultural and energy development (particularly hydraulic fracturing) and urban growth that do not necessarily follow the region's water plan. Great variability in resource distribution and competing resource demands across Texas will result in the emergence of distinct hotspots, each with unique characteristics that require multiple, localized, interventions to bridge the statewide water gap. This study explores three such hotspots: 1) water-food competition in Lubbock and the potential of producing 3 billion gallons of treated municipal waste water and encouraging dryland agriculture; 2) implementing Low Impact Developments (LIDs) for agriculture in the City of San Antonio, potentially adding 47 billion gallons of water supply, but carrying a potentially high financial cost; and 3) water-energy interrelations in the Eagle Ford Shale in light of well counts, climate dynamics, and population growth. The growing water gap is a state wide problem that requires holistic assessments that capture the impact on the tightly interconnected water, energy, and food systems. Better understanding the trade-offs associated with each ‘solution’ and enabling informed dialogue between stakeholders, offers a basis for formulating localized policy recommendations specific to each hotspot.

Abstract:
In this era of global challenges in energy policy, the importance of siting of facilities connected to development of energy system is greater than ever. At the same time, spreading of these facilities has often been controversial in surrounding communities. This article advances the debate on this phenomenon by focusing on an aspect of siting controversies that has become a game changer in recent years but has received remarkably little attention: the role of Web 2.0 in siting conflicts. To explore the impact of Web 2.0, the paper uses a case study approach, examining the influence of access to the Internet in two siting conflicts associated with shale gas prospecting in Poland in the period from 2012 to 2014. The possibilities that Web 2.0 offers to residents and other local actors in siting conflicts - access to knowledge, the ability to reframe the local debate using international resources, and mobilization of a network of support by sharing their version of the story - influence the dynamics of risk communication during siting controversies.

Abstract:
Unconventional natural gas exploration using hydraulic fracturing has spread rapidly from its "birthplace" in the Barnett Shale to shale plays across the globe, spurring polarized discussions about its environmental and social risks. These debates have engaged many stakeholders, including some individuals with natural and physical science backgrounds. This study presents results from semi-structured, in-depth interviews I conducted with these individuals, which demonstrate how they framed their engagement in these debates. I argue that the process of interacting in politicized debates over hydraulic fracturing impacted how these individuals constructed what it means to provide objective information to the public. In order to demonstrate objectivity, a number of these participants emphasized their role as problem solvers for, rather than opponents of, the oil and gas industry. Also, to provide balance against their critical evaluation of the environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing, several participants emphasized the (assumed) social benefits of energy exploration. Through exploring the "problems of method" faced by natural and physical scientists engaged in research on controversial energy topics, and their impacts for my own engagement as a qualitative social science researcher, I seek to contribute to our understanding of the challenges scientists face as they engage in energy research.

Abstract:
Oil and gas exploration and development have a long history and remain important in the American West. The region supported 150,000 well completions from 2000 to 2017. In the same timeframe, unconventional oil and gas development in the West's Niobrara and Bakken formations contributed 28% of United States shale oil production and 14% of shale gas yields. This essay introduces the concept of "impact geography" as a guiding framework for synthesizing literature on social impacts of unconventional oil and gas development and deploys the concept in a review of recent published literature on social impacts in the region. The impact geography approach reflects the fact that that social impacts are generated by, and contingent upon, interactions between economic cycles, geology, technology and local context as they occur in particular spaces and places. This review of social impacts, broadly defined, is organized around three major impact geographies: rural and remote; (sub) urban; and sovereign nations. Within these geographies, we identify a variety of places-boomtowns, industrialized countrysides, borderlands, petro-suburbs, and focusing sites - and survey the impacts that stakeholders within them have experienced as they have been reported in the academic literature.

Abstract:
Straddling the late 2000s and the early 2010s, and following the dawn of the 'shale gas revolution' in North America, European governments have considered the possibility to repeat such an endeavor. However, the great disparity of energy mixes and histories across the continent has caused diverse responses to these plans. In this paper, we focus on three countries whose governments made markedly different choices with respect to the development of shale gas and to the application of its related extractive technology, hydraulic fracturing: France, Germany, and Poland. We analyze the discursive strategies employed by advocates of this resource/technology to turn them into a legitimate and desirable option for national energy supply. For our investigation, we mobilize a combination of theoretical frameworks and concepts originating from discourse analysis (the Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse), and science & technology studies (the regime of technoscientific promises). In doing so, we focus on the press and the grey literature. Our tripartite analysis reveals that the reception of shale gas was significantly shaped by the ways in which proponents built horizons of expectations, and inflected them by adapting them to different national contexts: that was ultimately a matter of discursively structured politics of knowledge.

Abstract:
New technologies coupled with high energy prices, a desire for energy independence, and cleaner energy, have led to many energy companies investing large amounts of capital into rural places. In the last decade, along with solar and wind, unconventional shale oil and gas production has risen steeply throughout the United States (U.S. Energy Information Administration, Drilling productivity report, 2018) boosting economic growth and stimulating wealth creation in many communities. Because farmers own or operate over half of rural lands in the lower 48 states, the possibility is high for shale development to contribute to the financial well-being of farmers with land in shale regions. However, by focusing on the large royalties of some landowners, environmental and social risks that farmers encounter may be overlooked. To address the gap of farmer impacts, I examine the experiences and perceptions of crop farm owners who reside in two established shale plays: the Bakken region in North Dakota and the Marcellus region in Pennsylvania and in one emerging shale play: the New Albany region in Southern Illinois. I survey farm owners of both large and small crop farms, who farm a variety of crops both by conventional and organic methods. By having such a diverse sample of farm owners in both established shale plays and emerging shale plays, I explore how farmers’ experiences differ with respect to their finances and investments, environmental degradation as well as how their perceptions of trust in oil and gas companies and community rifts differ.

Abstract:
The development of cost-effective technologies, along with high crude oil and natural gas prices, accelerated shale oil and gas extraction in the United States in the early 2000s. We explore the schooling response to this boom, taking advantage of timing and spatial variation in well-drilling activities. We show that intensive drilling activities decreased grade 11 and 12 enrollment over the 14-year study period—41,760 fewer students enrolled per year across the 15 states considered in this analysis (95% C.I.: 12,685 to 71,567). We investigate heterogeneous effects and show that the effect was larger in states with a younger compulsory schooling age (16 years of age instead of 17 or 18), in states with a lower effective tax rate on oil and gas production, and in non-metro counties with traditional mining or persistent poverty.

Abstract:
In the face of declining natural gas production, depleting foreign revenue and the local and international demand for natural gas, Algeria seeks to develop its substantial shale gas potential to avoid economic decline. This paper uses a SWOT analysis method to identify key policy and legal issues for shale gas development in Algeria. It broadly investigates the internal strengths (S) and weaknesses (W) and external opportunities (O) and threats (T) facing Algeria’s shale gas development. Qualitative data from policies, laws, and reports, and literature reviews from books and journal articles are utilised in examining Algeria's external and internal environment concerning the development of its shale gas. Based on the analysis, this paper identifies alternative strategies and responses for the development of shale gas resource in Algeria. Thus, it is necessary for providing the Algerian government and other stakeholders with the relevant information to identify which course of action it could take with reference to developing the country’s shale gas. It further provides researchers with a foundational understanding of the broad context surrounding development so that future research can also assess shale gas development in Algeria.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing is a technology developed to improve and increase the production of natural gas. In many countries, including the Netherlands, it has caused environmental controversies. In these controversies, 'futurity framing' may open up debates for alternative paradigms such as 'degrowth,' which is the pursuing of collective and deliberative, downscaled production of (natural) resources and less consumption for convivial living. Based on a frame analysis, it is demonstrated that opponents and proponents of fracking have envisaged pessimistic energy futures either to promote or devaluate fracking technology. In addition, the results show that dominant technological enthusiasm has enabled the introduction of 'degrowth technology,' which are downscaled, decentralized and renewable energy technologies. Degrowth-technology framing may provide a means of access for more radical degrowth thinking in the energy debates. This empirical finding also indicates that the degrowth paradigm could include controversies as entry points for creating support for degrowth thinking. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract:
Romania has recently begun the exploration of shale gas reserves and, it is expected that these unconventional resources to be exploited by hydraulic fracturing. The use of this technology is controversial in high-populated areas, where the economic, social and especially the environmental impact is practically unknown. However, for the public opinion, the shale gas exploitation is presented as an operation triggering no major risks. Therefore, several agreements were concluded between the Romanian authorities and the major players in the exploitation field. Against this background, our paper shows that the shale gas exploitation has no real benefits for the Romanian citizens. More precisely, we conduct an exhaustive cost-benefit analysis, considering the economic, social and environmental consequences of the shale gas exploitation, and we show that in the long run, the costs considerably overlap the benefits. The use of hydraulic fracturing procedure, which implies huge costs with the water consumption and wastewater treatment, influences the outcome of our investigation. These findings are sustained by the sensitivity analysis we have performed.

Abstract:
In the U.S., governance for oil and gas development has been increasingly devolved from centralized, relatively powerful governments to lower levels of government. At the same time, state governments increasingly preempt local authority, resulting in significant state-local contestation over oil and gas governance. The purpose of this analysis is to understand what level of government (i.e. local, state or federal) Colorado residents believe should regulate the oil and gas industry (referred to as governance scale preferences) in this era of neoliberalism, devolution, and state preemption. Colorado has been an epicenter of unconventional oil and gas production for years and is one of the most heavily-drilled states in the U.S. The state also lauds itself as being at the forefront of state-level regulation of the industry, key to our concerns here Descriptive results indicated that few support federal exemptions while many respondents endorse local regulation. Further, few variables have consistent results in the binary logistic regression models. Broadly, our analysis suggests that the public seems to endorse a complex, multi-layered system of governance for oil and gas development, suggesting that current efforts to concentrate regulatory power in state governments is at odds with public preferences.

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Public and stakeholder engagement with shale development is difficult, but essential. We review 26 engagement processes carried out by US and Canadian companies, alliances, government agencies, academics and activists; systematically exploring who participates, the stage at which engagements take place, aims and methods, provision for multiway engagement, and issues of credibility. We find a multitude of actors carrying out engagement using a variety of formats, ranging from barbeque events and town hall meetings to citizen science and in-depth qualitative research. Whilst we find many strengths, we also highlight a number of weaknesses. Much of this engagement does not occur at the earliest stages of development, and rarely asks the most fundamental question -whether shale development should proceed at all- instead commonly focusing on questions of impact minimisation, regulation and gaining support. Furthermore, the majority of activities tend to elicit the responses of interested and affected parties, with much less attention to views of the wider public. We reflect on what may be limiting engagement practice, and discuss how engagement might be improved.

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ABSTRACT. Outside the US, the commercial development of shale gas and oil will need to overcome significant legal and regulatory challenges if it is ever to ta

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This research investigates the relation between water, energy, and transportation systems, using the growing hydraulic fracturing activity in the Eagle Ford shale play region of southwest Texas in which the local water systems and road infrastructure were not designed for the frequent transport of water into the production site and of produced gas and oil from the site as are often required for hydraulic fracturing. The research: 1) quantifies the interconnections between water, energy, and transportation systems specific to the Eagle Ford shale region; 2) identifies and quantifies the economic, social, and environmental indicators to evaluate scenarios of oil and gas production; and 3) develops a framework for analysis of the economic, societal, and long term sustainability of the sectors and 4) an assessment tool (WET Tool) that estimates several economic indicators: oil and natural gas production, direct and indirect tax revenues, and average wages for each scenario facilitates the holistic assessment of oil and gas production scenarios and their associated trade-offs between them. Additionally, the Tool evaluates these social and environmental indices, (water demand, emissions, water tanker traffic, accidents, road deterioration, and expected average employment times). Scale of production is derived from the price of oil and gas; government revenues from production fluctuations in relation to rise and fall of the oil and gas market prices. While the economic benefits are straightforward, the social costs of shale development (water consumption, carbon emissions, and transportation/infrastructure factors), are difficult to quantify. The tool quantifies and assesses potential scenario outcomes, providing an aid to decision makers in the public and private sectors that allows increased understanding of the implications of each scenario for each sector by summarizing projected outcomes to allow evaluation of the scenarios and comparison of choices and facilitate the essential dialogue between these sectors.

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For over four years, local residents, the government, industry and scientists have been anticipating the start of shale gas operations at a site at Preston New Road in Lancashire, North West England. This paper examines how these different social actors perceive and think about time, as well as the future of fracking. Many of their disagreements expose the diverging ways in which they make sense of time and point to time and temporality as a useful lens for understanding their respective rationalities. Time also emerges as a principal mode of experiencing inequality, because not all notions of time are equivalent in relation to power. The three dispositions towards time that are played out in the shale gas debate in Lancashire construct time as: owned, as being the same in every moment, and as having real social and environmental effects. This article analyses the politics of time, which is an arena in which these notions are articulated and negotiated, and where they compete for a hegemonic position with varying success. It concludes by arguing that inscribing the future with particular characteristics is a powerful tool that forecloses some arguments and creates power disparities in debates around unconventional resource extraction.

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Environmental issues have become some of the greatest challenges encountered across the life cycle Shale gas operations, and mostly involve the management, disposal, and spill of flowback and produced (FP) waters during the process of hydraulic fracturing. This study evaluates Shale gas resources, addresses water resource management problems, and identifies the corresponding environmental implications of FP waters under uncertainty. Multiple tools, including structural optimization, process design, cost analysis, environmental assessment, and stochastic technology, are integrated into a general modeling framework based on game theory. This mathematic framework corresponds to a dominant-subordinate-interactive problem, where two major participants are identified as the downstream decision maker at the dominant level (e.g., power generation sector) and the upstream decision maker at the subordinate level (e.g., Shale gas producer). The Monte Carlo technique is used for simulating the estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) of a single well. Thereafter, the developed model is applied to a special case study of the Marcellus Shale play in Beaver County, Pennsylvania. Multiple decisions regarding gas production, processing, water management, as well as electricity generation would been examined under different probability levels. Results indicate that the changes in violation levels would lead to distinct environmental and economic performances of the supply chain. A lower probability level of the EUR value would correspond to an increased reliability on fulfilling the system demands, and then to higher economic benefits and freshwater supply; conversely, a higher probability level of the EUR value would result in lower economic benefits and lower freshwater supply, and the risk of violating the EUR value would also increase.

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Multi-stakeholder governance arrangements involving co-operation between public and non-state actors are a vital part of the governance landscape for addressing social impacts resulting from resources development. Yet, the current mantra for ‘collaboration’ has gained relative credibility and legitimacy without scrutiny of the democratic characteristics and quality of these institutional arrangements. This article responds to this normative concern by examining the implications for the democratic legitimacy of multi-stakeholder governance arrangements in cases where private resource extraction companies, who do not necessarily act in the public interest, exercise a ‘metagovernance’ role. We explore this topic through a qualitative case-study comparison of affordable housing governance in regions impacted by unconventional gas development in Australia and the United States. We argue that while multi-stakeholder governance arrangements convened by resource extraction companies can support situations of democracy under certain conditions, resource extraction companies structure the processes within these collaborative arrangements to the benefits of specific actors, notably the extractive companies themselves and other profit-orientated actors. In particular, we illustrate the depoliticizing effects of these institutions, whereby in some cases, they are used to constrain debates about the social impacts of extractives development, and circumscribe certain types of actors from participation in deliberative debate and decision-making. We underscore the importance of state intervention in ensuring communicative processes induced by corporate actors proceed according to the principles of deliberative democracy.

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Many governments and corporations have embraced information disclosure as an alternative to conventional environmental and public health regulation. Public policy research on transparency has examined the effects of particular disclosure policies, but there is limited research on how the construction of disclosure policies relates to social movements, or how transparency and ignorance are related. As a first step toward filling this theoretical gap, this study seeks to conceptualize disclosure conflicts, the social processes through which secrecy is challenged, defended, and mobilized in public technoscientific controversies. In the case of shale oil and gas development (“fracking”) in the United States, activists and policy makers have demanded information about the contents of fluids used in the extraction process and the routes of oil shipments by rail. Drilling and railroad companies have resisted both demands. Studies of such disputes reveal the dynamic and conflictual nature of information disclosure. In both cases, disclosure conflicts unfold dynamically over time, reflecting power disparities between industry groups and their challengers and requiring coalitions of activists to pursue multiple tactics. When a disclosure policy is established, it does not resolve social conflict but shifts the focus of struggle to the design of information systems, the quality of disclosed data, and the knowledge gaps that are now illuminated.

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Many countries are considering exploitation of shale gas but its overall sustainability is currently unclear. Previous studies focused mainly on environmental aspects of shale gas, largely in the US, with scant information on socio-economic aspects. To address this knowledge gap, this paper integrates for the first time environmental, economic and social aspects of shale gas to evaluate its overall sustainability. The focus is on the UK which is on the cusp of developing a shale gas industry. Shale gas is compared to other electricity options for the current situation and future scenarios up to the year 2030 to investigate whether it can contribute towards a more sustainable electricity mix in the UK. The results obtained through multi-criteria decision analysis suggest that, when equal importance is assumed for each of the three sustainability aspects shale gas ranks seventh out of nine electricity options, with wind and solar PV being the best and coal the worst options. However, it outranks biomass and hydropower. Changing the importance of the sustainability aspects widely, the ranking of shale gas ranges between fourth and eighth. For shale gas to become the most sustainable option of those assessed, large improvements would be needed, including a 329-fold reduction in environmental impacts and 16 times higher employment, along with simultaneous large changes (up to 10,000 times) in the importance assigned to each criterion. Similar changes would be needed if it were to be comparable to conventional or liquefied natural gas, biomass, nuclear or hydropower. The results also suggest that a future electricity mix (2030) would be more sustainable with a lower rather than a higher share of shale gas. These results serve to inform UK policy makers, industry and non-governmental organisations. They will also be of interest to other countries considering exploitation of shale gas.

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Managing Environmental Liability: An Evaluation of Bonding Requirements for Oil and Gas Wells in the United States

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Abstract This study explored sustainable and conventional farmers? perceptions of unconventional natural gas development (UNGD) as it relates to agricultural production and distribution. Farmers (n = 200) in Pennsylvania's Marcellus shale region with gas drilling infrastructure on or near their farmland completed questionnaires; a subset (n = 16) of survey respondents participated in semi?structured interviews. Findings revealed sustainable farmers faced unique negative impacts from UNGD, including greater sensitivity to environmental impacts, risks to organic certification and market participation, declining consumer confidence, and depreciating value of sustainable operations. UNGD?related income and increased wealth within communities appeared to benefit agricultural production and sales, yet the most cited impact of UNGD on agricultural productivity was a decrease in crop production as farmland was used for UNGD. Findings also highlighted potential impacts on nascent local food markets in areas with UNGD, farmers? expectations for outside oversight of UNGD, and limited transparency of environmental safety violations.

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The United States energy industry is transforming with the rapid development of alternative energy sources and technological advancements in fossil fuels. Two major changes include the growth of wind turbines and unconventional oil and gas. We measured land-use impacts and associated ecosystem services costs of unconventional gas and wind energy development within the Anadarko Basin of the Oklahoma Woodford Shale, an area that has experienced large increases in both energy sectors. Unconventional gas wells developed three times as much land compared to wind turbines (on a per unit basis), resulting in higher ecosystem services costs for gas. Gas wells had higher impacts on intensive agricultural lands (i.e., row crops) compared to wind turbines that had higher impacts on natural grasslands/pastures. Because wind turbines produced on average less energy compared to gas wells, the average land-use-related ecosystem cost per gigajoule of energy produced was almost the same. Our results demonstrate that both unconventional gas and wind energy have substantial impacts on land use, which likely affect wildlife populations and land-use-related ecosystem services. Although wind energy does not have the associated greenhouse gas emissions, we suggest that the direct impacts on ecosystems in terms of land use are similar to unconventional fossil fuels. Considering the expected rapid global expansion of these two forms of energy production, many ecosystems are likely to be at risk.

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Proposed and actual developments of hydraulic fracturing, as a high-volume water user, have proven contentious in recent years. However, one point of agreement has emerged amongst all actors with regards to water use and hydraulic fracturing: we need more data. This consensus fits with a longstanding reification of the role of data in water governance, and yet we argue it hides a politically contested terrain. Based on a literature review, an empirical Delphi study and a workshop with a diverse array of participants from across Canada, we explore the data needs related to water governance and hydraulic fracturing. We then investigate three areas of deficiency that point to a lack of trust and oversight as well as the exclusion of community and Indigenous knowledge. We argue that in an era of neoliberal approaches to water governance, issues of trust, accountability and transparency all link back to a diminished role for data management within existing water governance arrangements. The challenge is that simply collecting more data will not help decision-makers navigate the complexity of water governance. Our findings suggest a growing call by participants for greater engagement by governments in data collection and knowledge management, new funding mechanisms for data collection and re-thinking how and what to monitor if including multiple ways of knowing and values.

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Mexico's recent energy reform (2013) has provided the foundations for increased private participation in attempts to offset or reverse the country's continued decline in fossil fuel production. This country is currently on path to becoming a net energy importer by 2020. Conversely, in 2015, and for the first time in over 20 years, the United States (US) became a net oil exporter to Mexico. One of the strategies being pursued by Mexico to prevent an impending supply-demand energy imbalance is the development of shale resources using horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing techniques. Hence, an evaluation of the inherent risks associated with hydraulic fracturing is crucial for Mexico's energy planning and decision-making process. This paper draws lessons from the recent 'shale boom' in the US, and it analyzes and summarizes the environmental, social, economic, and community impacts that Mexico should be aware of as its nascent shale industry develops. The analysis seeks to inform mainly Mexican policy makers, but also academics, nongovernmental organizations, and the public in general, about the main concerns regarding hydraulic fracturing activities, and the importance of regulatory enforcement and community engagement in advancing sustainability. We highlight that Mexico should only develop its unconventional resources after careful evaluation of all potential impacts and after the formulation of regulation intended for their mitigation. Furthermore, using the US as a case study, we argue that development of unconventional oil and gas resources in Mexico could lead to a short-term boom rather than to a dependable and sustainable long-term energy supply. Our analysis concludes with a set of recommendations for Mexico, featuring best practices that could be used to attenuate and address some of the impacts likely to emerge from shale oil and gas development.

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Extraction of unconventional oil and gas using high-volume hydraulic fracturing (HVHF)—“fracking”—is a “wicked” problem: Science and policymaking are complex and opaque; problems are unstructured, cross areas of policy jurisdiction, require coordinated action among various stakeholders who disagree about values, and tend to result in limited solutions with complex consequences (1). Public participation in decision-making about hydrocarbon extraction is limited by the largely private nature of transactions among mineral rights owners and industry and the narrow opportunity for public input into procedures. Likewise, obstacles to accessing water-quality data and the dearth and diversity of such data limit shared understanding. We found, however, that, although data alone do not resolve wicked problems, shared interest in gathering, discussing, and improving water-quality data can lead to productive discussions among scientists, citizens with local knowledge, regulators, and industry practitioners. Such opportunities to “pull back the curtain” on science, funded and facilitated by honest brokers, could build trust and develop procedural fairness as foundations for social license. Data alone aren't the solution, but they bring people together Data alone aren't the solution, but they bring people together

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With the increasing shortage energy, the exploration and utilization of shale gas (SG) have greatly changed the world’s natural gas supply pattern. In this study, based on a bibliometric review of the publications related to SG, by analyzing the co-word networks during the past years, we provide comprehensive analyses on the underlying domain evolution of shale gas research (SGR). Firstly, we visualize the topical development of SGR. We not only identify the key topics at each stage but also reveal their underlying dependence and evolutionary trends. The directions of SGR in the future are implied. Secondly, we find the co-word network has small-world and scale-free characteristics, which are the important mechanisms of driving the evolution of SGR’s domain. Thirdly, we analyze China’s SGR. We find the co-word network in China’s SGR has not yet emerged obvious differentiation. Nevertheless, it has a similar self-organized evolution process with the co-word network of international SGR. Our above results can provide references for the future SGR of scholars, optimization or control of the domain and the strategy/policy of countries or globalization.

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Although current environmental justice analyses shed light on fracking and fracking’s environmental and public health policy, a comprehensive justice analysis framework is needed in order to cover the policy gap of fracking impacts on the total environment, communities, and sustainability. Based on a concise summary of the effects of fracking on the total environment, the society and economy, and land use, this brief communication designs a conception of fracking equity and its spatial justice analysis prototype. Fracking equity is much beyond the scope of current environmental justice or social justice that is spatially limited within certain distance to fracking wells. Fracking equity based on the benefit and harm associated with fracking, not only encompasses environmental justice, social justice, but also emphasizes all stakeholder groups, the spatiotemporal characteristics of the justice of fracking, sustainable development, and the integrated analyzing methods including GIS, decision making, demographic analysis, spatiotemporal modeling at different scales, and long term analysis of fracking equity. Spatial justice of fracking unites the environmental, social, economic, ecological factors and their processes that are temporally changing and reshaping the space people live in and depend on, and these complicated factors and their dynamic interactions are the core of spatial justice.