Repository for Oil and Gas Energy Research (ROGER)

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This article examines competing political discourses surrounding shale extraction in the UK. It asks how these meanings are communicated and why certain understandings of the issue gain prominence. Drawing on discourse analysis and framing studies, the article first distinguishes two competing coalitions (pro- and anti-shale) and their shared narratives or ‘storylines’ (shale opportunity versus shale threat). Through a systematic examination of press reports, websites and public documents, it identifies opposing discursive frames used to shape understanding, meaning and debates, and assesses their resonance and power. The article builds on existing interpretive studies by providing a finer-grained analysis of discourse success, and a greater emphasis on the coalition members who shape and deliver the agreed storyline. It argues that the anti-shale coalition in the UK has thus far enjoyed greater discourse success for two reasons: firstly, because the pro-shale coalition lacks trustworthy messengers; secondly, because shale opponents have successfully expanded the debate beyond economic or environmental concerns to include potent issues of local power and democracy.

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The development of the shale industry is gaining momentum and hence the analysis of chemical hazards to the environment and health of the local population is extreiely timely and important. Chemical hazards are created during the exploitation of all minerals, but in the case of shale gas production, there is much more uncertainty as regards to the effects of new technologies application. American experience suggests the increasing risk of environmental contamination, mainly groundwater. The greatest, concern is the incomplete knowledge of the composition of fluids used for fracturing shale rock and unpredictability of long-term effects of hydraulic fracturing for the environment and health of residents. High population density in the old continent causes the problem of chemical hazards which is much larger than in the USA. Despite the growing public discontent data on this subject are limited. First of all, there is no epidemiological studies to assess the relationship between risk factors, such as air and water pollution, and health effects in populations living in close proximity to gas wells. The aim of this article is to identify and discuss existing concepts on the sources of environmental contamination, an indication of the environment elements under pressure and potential health risks arising from shale gas extraction.

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This paper presents an intensive survey of literature focused on the different aspects of fracking as related to the environment, economy, energy security and sustainability and establishes an understanding of the economic benefits and negative impacts of fracking on the environmental sustainability. The paper is also suggesting the use of all of those implications in a more comprehensive framework that can identify the real cost and benefit in fracking such as the Life Cycle Costing which can use all these implications along with others that occur across all the phases of the fracking process to come up with the real value and worth of the fracking process.

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This content analysis of newspaper articles and online social media from English-speaking sources on the topic of ‘fracking’ interrogates the use of scientific legitimacy in claims-makings and how public understandings of science develop through these media. In both forms of media, science is invoked in one sense as rational and objective to either neutralize or support emotionally-charged accounts and fears of hydraulic fracturing dangers. In another sense, however, science is viewed as a bureaucratic tool used at the will of government and business interests and easily corrupted to support ideological or interest-based positions. Claims regarding science typically follow ideological positions rather than the reverse – the ‘science’ that supports fracking as safe is called into question by those skeptical of fracking, while the anti-fracking position is designated as ‘anti-science’ by those who favor fracking. These strategies as they play out in the media serve to spread uncertainty, heighten cynicism, and undermine public confidence in science. An understanding of science as incomplete and cumulative, however, lends itself to the precautionary principle.

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Interest in the development of shale gas resources using hydraulic fracturing techniques is increasing worldwide despite concerns about the environmental risks associated with this activity. In the United Kingdom (UK), early attempts to hydraulically fracture a shale gas well resulted in a seismic event that led to the suspension of all hydraulic fracturing operations. In response to this occurrence, UK regulators have requested that future shale gas operations that use hydraulic fracturing should be accompanied by a high-level environmental risk assessment (ERA). Completion of an ERA can demonstrate competency, communicate understanding, and ultimately build trust that environmental risks are being managed properly, however, this assessment requires a scientific evidence base. In this paper we discuss how the ERA became a preferred assessment technique to understand the risks related to shale gas development in the UK, and how it can be used to communicate information between stakeholders. We also provide a review of the evidence base that describes the environmental risks related to shale gas operations, which could be used to support an ERA. Finally, we conclude with an update of the current environmental risks associated with shale gas development in the UK and present recommendations for further research.

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Shale gas extraction (SGE) and, more precisely, hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, has a propensity to court controversy wherever it is proposed. Many processes within SGE are essentially civil engineering processes and while numerous studies into the efficacy of SGE exist, answers to ethical and societal questions relating to safety, health and environmental sustainability remain unanswered. Recently, the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change announced its intention to support studies that encourage the development of innovative technologies for safe and responsible exploitation of the UK's shale gas resources. This paper explores the current state of knowledge regarding safety, health and wellbeing in the SGE industry, and presents the case for a detailed multi-disciplinary value-engineering study to develop pre-drill assessments and to provide ongoing monitoring tools that will assure public authorities, market operators and citizens that best-practice environmental, safety and sustainability approaches are available and feasible.

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Shale gas has become a promising onshore energy prospect in China. As much as the country aspires for greater energy independence through the use of its shale gas reserves, this process is slowed down by the combined weight of relative inexperience, lack of technology, geographical complexity, a hostile economic environment, a disincentive pipeline regime, and a complex land ownership system. To foster a better understanding of the current circumstances of the country's shale gas sector, a panel of scholars and experts shared their perspectives and insider knowledge on China's shale gas industry. It was found that some of the country's man-made institutional barriers are factors that have been hindering shale gas development in China, in addition to natural conditions such as water concerns and the complex geography of shale fields. Resolving this situation necessitates breaking the monopoly that major state-owned oil companies have over high-quality shale gas resources, opening pipeline network access, providing geological data, developing the domestic oil service market, creating conditions for fair competition between service providers, and improving the water management system.

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This paper presents life cycle environmental impacts of UK shale gas used for electricity generation, in comparison with other fossil, nuclear and renewable options. Per kWh of electricity generated, shale gas has higher environmental impacts than the other options, except for coal. Thus, if it were to replace coal, most impacts would be reduced, including the global warming potential (GWP; by 2.3 times). However, if it were to compete with nuclear or some renewables most impacts would rise, with the GWP increasing by 5–123 times. Within a future UK electricity mix up to 2030, shale gas would make little difference to the environmental impacts of electricity generation, including the GWP, even for the most optimistic assumptions for its domestic production. This suggests that, in the medium term, shale gas cannot help towards meeting UK climate change targets and that certain renewables and nuclear power should be prioritized instead.

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Exploitation of shale gas in the UK is at a very early stage, but with the latest estimates suggesting potential resources of 3.8 × 1013 cubic metres – enough to supply the UK for next 470 years – it is viewed by many as an exciting economic prospect. However, its environmental impacts are currently unknown. This is the focus of this paper which estimates for the first time the life cycle impacts of UK shale gas, assuming its use for electricity generation. Shale gas is compared to fossil-fuel alternatives (conventional gas and coal) and low-carbon options (nuclear, offshore wind and solar photovoltaics). The results suggest that the impacts range widely, depending on the assumptions. For example, the global warming potential (GWP100) of electricity from shale gas ranges from 412 to 1102 g CO2-eq./kWh with a central estimate of 462 g. The central estimates suggest that shale gas is comparable or superior to conventional gas and low-carbon technologies for depletion of abiotic resources, eutrophication, and freshwater, marine and human toxicities. Conversely, it has a higher potential for creation of photochemical oxidants (smog) and terrestrial toxicity than any other option considered. For acidification, shale gas is a better option than coal power but an order of magnitude worse than the other options. The impact on ozone layer depletion is within the range found for conventional gas, but nuclear and wind power are better options still. The results of this research highlight the need for tight regulation and further analysis once typical UK values of key parameters for shale gas are established, including its composition, recovery per well, fugitive emissions and disposal of drilling waste.

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In this paper, we use the US shale gas experience to shed light on how China might overcome the innovation problem inherent in exploring and developing shale gas plays with complex geology. We separate shale gas development into two stages, an innovation stage and a scaling-up stage, with the first presenting a much bigger challenge than the latter. Our analysis suggests that China׳s national oil companies offer the best hope for overcoming the innovation problem. China׳s policy of opening shale gas development to new entrants is a market-oriented reform that can be justified on various grounds, but the new entrants will not play a major role in overcoming the innovation problem even though they may help scale up production later on.

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Shale gas development in China can generate great potential economic benefits, but also poses serious environmental risks. In this paper, we offer a macro assessment of the environmental risks of shale gas development in China. We use the US experience to identify the nature of shale gas development activities and the types of potential burdens these activities may create. We then review the baseline environmental conditions and the effectiveness of environmental regulations in China and discuss the implications of these China-specific factors for risk assessment. We recommend China to conduct a strategic environmental assessment and to consider sector-specific environmental regulations.

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To ensure that unconventional shale gas development (UGD) yields net social benefits, we need to identify the magnitude and distribution of its benefits and costs and develop effective technological, management, and regulatory strategies to minimize potential adverse effects. A major obstacle to achieve these goals is the gaps in the collection, access, and dissemination of information. This paper focuses on information gaps to assess a narrow subset of the potential links between UGD and well-water contamination, drawing particularly from the experience in Pennsylvania. It suggests strategies for legislators, regulators, industry, and researchers to address these information gaps, while protecting legitimate privacy concerns. The benefits from an improved understanding of the impact of this industry and resulting innovations to mitigate its impacts justifies the cost of data collection, access, and dissemination.

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This study examined belief superiority—the belief that one's own beliefs are more correct than other viewpoints—in the domain of environmental and energy issues. Replicating research in other domains, attitude extremity on seven energy issues was associated with belief superiority about those viewpoints. Consequences of belief superiority were also tested: participants read an article that either confirmed or contradicted their position on hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”). People high in belief superiority rated the article's author more harshly when he disagreed with them. However, these participants were also more willing than those low in belief superiority to discuss and work on fracking topics. Those high in belief superiority thought they were better educated about energy than others, and their certainty about their beliefs tended to increase after reading the article, even when the article contradicted those beliefs. Implications of belief superiority for energy education and environmental campaigns are discussed.

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With the increasing of energy demand and environmental pressure, China government has been exploring a way to diversify energy supply. Shale gas development is becoming an important energy strategy in China in recent years due to giant shale gas reserves. However, the shale gas market is preliminarily shaping in China, so that many factors have great influence on its competition. To find these factors and to control them rationally is good for the cultivating Chinese shale gas market. Five forces model for industry analysis puts an insight into the competitive landscape of shale gas market by showing the forces of supplier power, buyer power, threat of substitution, barriers to entry, and degree of rivalry. Illustrating the key factors that affect competitive landscape provides a view into the situation of shale gas industry. The variation tendency of shale gas industry is analyzed by setting various scenarios. Finally some suggestions are proposed in order to keep the development of shale gas industry positively.

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In a context of resource scarcity and political instability, new energy sources and technologies are being explored in many parts of the world and exploited in some. One of these new energy sources is shale gas and one of the countries seeking to decrease its energy dependence and increase its energy security is Poland which is largely dependent on gas and oil imports from Russia. This article presents the results of a thematic content analysis of articles reporting on shale gas/fracking published in Gazeta Wyborcza and Rzeczpospolita, two leading Polish newspapers, from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2012. Findings suggest that in media reporting the geopolitical dimension of fracking overrides the technological/scientific dimension and that representations are overwhelmingly positive. Positive representations are bolstered through particular linguistic framings. It is argued that the Polish press has polarized the debate on fracking in a particular (positive) direction, which has silenced an open and constructive debate concerning energy policy in Poland and constructed criticism of fracking as counter-normative and “un-Polish.” The potential socio-political and policy implications of these media representations are discussed.

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Public concerns about hydraulic fracking are growing and scientists continue to analyze and evaluate its associated environmental impacts. However, a rigorous spatial analysis of environmental impacts is necessary to provide a perspective on risk based on proximity to fracking wells. This comment describes the environmental impacts of fracking within a spatial context. It emphasizes five key points: (1) the closer to a hydraulic fracking well, the higher the risk of groundwater and drinking water well contamination; (2) residents living nearest to a fracking well experience a higher human health risk due to exposure to gas emissions during the fracking process; (3) huge and high density gas emissions are detected and recorded close to fracking wells; (4) fracking induces seismicity and small earthquakes are recorded close to fracking wells; and (5) hydraulic fracking directly changes local environment and landscape characteristics. Spatial impact assessments are critical for improving understanding of the impacts of hydraulic fracking on the environment and society.

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“Fracking” has received substantial attention in scientific, mass media, and public discourse. This word originally referred to the process of hydraulic fracturing, but recently it has taken on a wider range of meanings in many fora. It now denotes one or more of several processes and impacts related to gas/oil exploration, extraction, and development; confusion can arise when it is unclear which processes or impacts are included in a particular use of this term. “Fracking” also carries negative and lewd connotations that shape public representations of the processes and impacts associated with it. By causing confusion and evoking bias, the word “fracking” can constrain meaningful policy conversation about the underlying issues and concerns. We offer recommendations for how to discuss this controversial topic while at best avoiding, or at least supplementing, the term “fracking”.

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With the increased natural gas prices and advancement in the horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing technology, there is a high interest in shale gas reservoirs in the world and in Turkey. However, gas production from shale gas reservoirs is quite different than conventional gas reservoirs because permeability in shale gas reservoirs is very low and production mechanism is different due to adsorbed gas and free gas together in these reservoirs. The aim of study is to clarify shale gas reservoirs in terms of the world and Turkey's shale gas potential, gas production mechanism, and current techniques applied.

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Unconventional oil and natural gas extraction enabled by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is driving an economic boom, with consequences described from “revolutionary” to “disastrous.” Reality lies somewhere in between. Unconventional energy generates income and, done well, can reduce air pollution and even water use compared with other fossil fuels. Alternatively, it could slow the adoption of renewables and, done poorly, release toxic chemicals into water and air. Primary threats to water resources include surface spills, wastewater disposal, and drinking-water contamination through poor well integrity. An increase in volatile organic compounds and air toxics locally are potential health threats, but the switch from coal to natural gas for electricity generation will reduce sulfur, nitrogen, mercury, and particulate air pollution. Data gaps are particularly evident for human health studies, for the question of whether natural gas will displace coal compared with renewables, and for decadal-scale legacy issues of well leakage and plugging and abandonment practices. Critical topics for future research include data for (a) estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) of unconventional hydrocarbons, (b) the potential for further reductions of water requirements and chemical toxicity, (c) whether unconventional resource development alters the frequency of well integrity failures, (d) potential contamination of surface and ground waters from drilling and spills, (e) factors that could cause wastewater injection to generate large earthquakes, and (f) the consequences of greenhouse gases and air pollution on ecosystems and human health. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources Volume 39 is October 17, 2014. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.

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Shale gas has become an energy policy priority in the United Kingdom in light of profitable extraction activities in the United States. Since 2012 the Coalition Government has created key economic drivers to encourage shale exploration, whilst growing activism in affected site communities has stirred significant media and academic commentary. This study examines the growing national debate as a matter of discourse, adopting an argumentative discourse analytic approach to assess data collected from stakeholder interviews (n=21) and key policy actor statements quoted in broadsheet newspapers. We explore three dominant “storylines” emerging in relation to shale gas policy: (1) “cleanliness and dirt” concerns the relative framing of the environmental benefits and harms of shale gas; (2) “energy transitions – pathways and diversions” concerns geographic metaphors of transitions to carbon intensive and low-carbon energy systems; and (3) “geographies of environmental justice” concerns divisions of economic benefit distribution, environmental impact and procedural fairness. We find that central government policy rhetoric emphasises economic development, regulatory oversight and distribution of benefits to site communities, whilst minimising discussion of the implications of shale gas for anthropogenic climate change. The role of these discourses in influencing shale gas policy is discussed.

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The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was contacted by citizens of Pavillion, Wyoming 6 years ago regarding taste and odor in their water wells in an area where hydraulic fracturing operations were occurring. EPA conducted a field investigation, including drilling two deep monitor wells, and concluded in a draft report that constituents associated with hydraulic fracturing had impacted the drinking water aquifer. Following extensive media coverage, pressure from state and other federal agencies, and extensive technical criticism from industry, EPA stated the draft report would not undergo peer review, that it would not rely on the conclusions, and that it had relinquished its lead role in the investigation to the State of Wyoming for further investigation without resolving the source of the taste and odor problem. Review of the events leading up to EPA's decision suggests that much of the criticism could have been avoided through improved preproject planning with clear objectives. Such planning would have identified the high national significance and potential implications of the proposed work. Expanded stakeholder involvement and technical input could have eliminated some of the difficulties that plagued the investigation. However, collecting baseline groundwater quality data prior to initiating hydraulic fracturing likely would have been an effective way to evaluate potential impacts. The Pavillion groundwater investigation provides an excellent opportunity for improving field methods, report transparency, clarity of communication, and the peer review process in future investigations of the impacts of hydraulic fracturing on groundwater.

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This study assesses the overall technical, economic, environmental, and social costs and benefits of the hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) of natural gas. Drawn from a review of more than 100 studies looking at shale gas in the past 10 years, most of them peer-reviewed, this article begins by briefly explaining the process of hydrofracking and summarizing recent market trends up until late 2013. Then, the study discusses a series of advantages and disadvantages to hydrofracking. It notes that done properly, shale gas development can enhance energy security and the availability of energy fuels, lower natural gas prices, offer a cleaner environmental footprint than some other fossil fuels, and enable local economic development. However, done poorly production can be prone to accidents and leakage, contribute to environmental degradation, induce earthquakes, and, when externalities are accounted for, produce more net economic losses than profits. The study concludes that the pursuit and utilization of shale gas thus presents policymakers, planners, and investors with a series of pernicious tradeoffs and tough choices.

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China has laid out an ambitious strategy for developing its vast shale gas reserves. This study developed an input–output based hybrid life-cycle inventory model to estimate the energy use, water consumption, and air emissions implications of shale gas infrastructure development in China over the period 2013–2020, including well drilling and operation, land rig and fracturing fleet manufacture, and pipeline construction. Multiple scenarios were analyzed based on different combinations of well development rates, well productivities, and success rates. Results suggest that 700–5100 petajoules (PJ) of primary energy will be required for shale gas infrastructure development, while the net primary energy yield of shale gas production over 2013–2020 was estimated at 1650–7150 PJ, suggesting a favorable energy balance. Associated emissions of CO2e were estimated at 80–580 million metric tons, and were primarily attributable to coal-fired electricity generation, fugitive methane, and flaring of methane during shale gas processing and transmission. Direct water consumption was estimated at 20–720 million metric tons. The largest sources of energy use and emissions for infrastructure development were the metals, mining, non-metal mineral products, and power sectors, which should be the focus of energy efficiency initiatives to reduce the impacts of shale gas infrastructure development moving forward.

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The North American shale gas “revolution” provides tremendous opportunities, but our scientific understanding of this transition and its potential near- and long-term social, economic, and environmental impacts lags behind the rapid pace of change. Investors, policy makers, and other stakeholders need greater clarity to make robust decisions in today’s dynamic natural gas sector. A comprehensive, interdisciplinary research agenda can help inform these decisions.

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The meaning of hydraulic fracturing for shale gas is contested worldwide: is it an energy game changer, a transition fuel, or a technology that poses severe environmental problems? In the Netherlands, a policy controversy developed in which fracturing was reframed from ‘business as usual’ to a potential environmental risk. This article theoretically and empirically describes this shift by arguing that the technology of hydraulic fracturing for shale gas is a boundary object that created a sphere of engagement for all sorts of actors. In this sphere, they negotiated a common but soft meaning of this technology. These negotiations consisted of frame contests. As part of those contests, the discursive strategies of framing and boundary work enabled opponents to create uncertainty about economic benefits and environmental impact. The shift in meaning transformed the issue from an economic one with standard governmental rules and regulations into a planning issue that needs more precaution.

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Although shale drilling operations for oil and natural gas have increased greatly in the past decade, few studies directly quantify the impacts of shale development on plants and wildlife. We evaluate knowledge gaps related to shale development and prioritize research needs using a quantitative framework that includes spatial and temporal extent, mitigation difficulty, and current level of understanding. Identified threats to biota from shale development include: surface and groundwater contamination; diminished stream flow; stream siltation; habitat loss and fragmentation; localized air, noise, and light pollution; climate change; and cumulative impacts. We find the highest research priorities to be probabilistic threats (underground chemical migration; contaminant release during storage, during disposal, or from accidents; and cumulative impacts), the study of which will require major scientific coordination among researchers, industry, and government decision makers. Taken together, our research prioritization outlines a way forward to better understand how energy development affects the natural world.

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Use of high-volume hydraulic fracturing (HVHF) in unconventional reservoirs to recover previously inaccessible oil and natural gas is rapidly expanding in North America and elsewhere. Although hydraulic fracturing has been practiced for decades, the advent of more technologically advanced horizontal drilling coupled with improved slickwater chemical formulations has allowed extensive natural gas and oil deposits to be recovered from shale formations. Millions of liters of local groundwaters are utilized to generate extensive fracture networks within these low-permeability reservoirs, allowing extraction of the trapped hydrocarbons. Although the technology is relatively standardized, the geographies and related policies and regulations guiding these operations vary markedly. Some ecosystems are more at risk from these operations than others because of either their sensitivities or the manner in which the HVHF operations are conducted. Generally, the closer geographical proximity of the susceptible ecosystem to a drilling site or a location of related industrial processes, the higher the risk of that ecosystem being impacted by the operation. The associated construction of roads, power grids, pipelines, well pads, and water-extraction systems along with increased truck traffic are common to virtually all HVHF operations. These operations may result in increased erosion and sedimentation, increased risk to aquatic ecosystems from chemical spills or runoff, habitat fragmentation, loss of stream riparian zones, altered biogeochemical cycling, and reduction of available surface and hyporheic water volumes because of withdrawal-induced lowering of local groundwater levels. The potential risks to surface waters from HVHF operations are similar in many ways to those resulting from agriculture, silviculture, mining, and urban development. Indeed, groundwater extraction associated with agriculture is perhaps a larger concern in the long term in some regions. Understanding the ecological impacts of these anthropogenic activities provides useful information for evaluations of potential HVHF hazards. Geographic information system-based modeling combined with strategic site monitoring has provided insights into the relative importance of these and other ecoregion and land-use factors in discerning potential HVHF impacts. Recent findings suggest that proper siting and operational controls along with strategic monitoring can reduce the potential for risks to aquatic ecosystems. Nevertheless, inadequate data exist to predict ecological risk at this time. The authors suggest considering the plausibility of surface water hazards associated with the various HVHF operations in terms of the ecological context and in the context of relevant anthropogenic activities. Environ Toxicol Chem 2014;33:1679-1689. © 2014 SETAC.

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Nuclear energy and shale gas development each began with the promise of cheap, abundant energy and prospects for national energy independence. Nuclear energy was touted as “too cheap to meter,” and shale gas promised jobs and other economic benefits during a recession.

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A broad assessment is provided of the current state of knowledge regarding the risks associated with shale gas development and their governance. For the principal domains of risk, we identify observed and potential hazards and promising mitigation options to address them, characterizing current knowledge and research needs. Important unresolved research questions are identified for each area of risk, however, certain domains exhibit especially acute deficits of knowledge and attention, including integrated studies of public health, ecosystems, air quality, socioeconomic impacts on communities, and climate change. For these, current research and analysis are insufficient to either confirm or preclude important impacts. The rapidly evolving landscape of shale gas governance in the U.S. is also assessed, noting challenges and opportunities associated with the current decentralized (state-focused) system of regulation. We briefly review emerging approaches to shale gas governance in other nations, and consider new governance initiatives and options in the U.S. involving voluntary industry certification, comprehensive development plans, financial instruments, and possible future federal roles. In order to address the multiple disciplines and complexities of the evolving shale gas system and reduce the many key uncertainties needed for improved management, a coordinated multiagency federal research effort will need to be implemented.

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The organic content of shale has become of commercial interest as a source of hydrocarbons, owing to the development of hydraulic fracturing (?fracking?). While the main focus is on the extraction of methane, shale also contains significant amounts of Non-Methane Hydrocarbons (NMHC). We describe the first real-time observations of the release of NMHC from a fractured shale. Samples from the Bowland-Hodder formation (England) were analysed under different conditions using mass spectrometry with the objective of understanding the dynamic process of gas release upon fracturing of the shale. A wide range of NMHC (alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics and bi-cyclic hydrocarbons) are released at ppm or ppb level with temperature and humidity-dependent release rates, which can be rationalised in terms of the physio-chemical characteristics of different hydrocarbons classes. Our results indicate that higher energy inputs (i.e. temperatures) significantly increase the amount of NMHC released from shale, while humidity tends to suppress it; additionally, a large fraction of the gas is released within the first hour after the shale has been fractured. These findings suggest that other hydrocarbons of commercial interest may be extracted from shale and open the possibility to optimise the ?fracking? process, improving gas yields and reducing environmental impacts.

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The fracking debate is a product of the tension between the environmental degradation it may cause, on the one hand, and on the other the greater energy demands of a rapidly increasing South African population with expectations of an ever-increasing standard of living. Shale gas fracking in the Karoo of South Africa promises to make vast reserves of oil and gas available to help meet a significant percentage of the country’s energy needs for many years to come. This will aid development and contribute to raising the standard of living of many. This article seeks to apprise the South African faith communities of the technology and risks involved. Christian theological guidelines are presented by which its benefits and dangers may be interrogated so that the community may be able come to an informed decision as to whether or not to support fracking.

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This paper presents a methodology for connecting endowments, economics and the environment in conventional, tight, shale and Coalbed Methane (CBM) reservoirs. The volumetric estimates are generated by a Variable Shape Distribution model (VSD). The VSD has been shown in the past to be useful for the evaluation of conventional and tight gas reservoirs. However, this is the first paper in which the method is used to also include shale gas and CBM formations. Results indicate a total gas endowment of 70,000 tcf, split between 15,000 tcf in conventional reservoirs, 15,000 tcf in tight gas, 30,000 tcf in shale gas and 10,000 tcf in CBM reservoirs. Thus, natural gas formations have potential to provide a significant contribution to global energy demand estimated at approximately 790 quads by 2035. A common thread between unconventional formations is that nearly all of them must be hydraulically fractured to attain commercial production. A significant volume of data indicates that the probabilities of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) fluids and/or methane contaminating ground water through the hydraulically-created fractures are very low. Since fracking has also raised questions about the economic viability of producing unconventional gas in some parts of the world, supply curves are estimated in this paper for the global gas portfolio. The curves show that, in some cases, the costs of producing gas from unconventional reservoirs are comparable to those of conventional gas. The conclusion is that there is enough natural gas to supply the energy market for nearly 400 years at current rates of consumption and 110 years with a growth rate in production of 2% per year. With appropriate regulation, this may be done safely, commercially, and in a manner that is more benign to the environment as compared with other fossil fuels.

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In response to a series of “energy crises” in the 1970s, the United States government began investigating the potential of unconventional, domestic sources of energy to offset imported oil. Hydraulic fracturing applied to vertical tight sand and coal bed methane wells achieved some degree of success during a period of high energy prices in the early 1980s, but shale gas remained largely untapped until the late 1990s with the application of directional drilling, a mature technology adapted from deepwater offshore platforms that allowed horizontal wells to penetrate kilometers of organic-rich shale, and staged hydraulic fracturing, which created high permeability flowpaths from the horizontal wells into a much greater volume of the target formations than previous completion methods. These new engineering techniques opened up vast unconventional natural gas and oil reserves, but also raised concerns about potential environmental impacts. These include short-term and long-term impacts to air and water quality from rig operations, potential migration of gas, fluids and chemicals through the ground, and effects on small watersheds and landscapes from roads, pads and other surface structures. Engineering risk assessment commonly uses integrated assessment models (IAMs), which define sources of risk from features, events and processes. The risk from each system element is assessed using high-fidelity models. Output from these is simplified into reduced-order models, so that a large, integrated site performance assessment can be run using the IAM. The technique has been applied to engineered systems in geologic settings for sequestering carbon dioxide, and it is also applicable to shale gas, albeit with some modifications of the various system elements. Preliminary findings indicate that shale gas well drilling and hydraulic fracturing techniques are generally safe when properly applied. Incident reports recorded by state environmental agencies suggest that human error resulting from the disregard of prescribed practices is the greatest cause of environmental incidents. This can only be addressed through education, regulations and enforcement.

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The use of natural gas that is obtained from high-volume hydraulic fracturing (fracking) may reduce carbon emissions relative to the use of coal and have substantial economic benefits for South Africa. However, concerns have been raised regarding the health and environmental impacts. The drilling and fracking processes use hundreds of chemicals as well as silica sand. Additional elements are either released from or formed in the shale during drilling. These substances can enter the environment in various ways: through failures in the well casing; via alternative underground pathways; as wastewater, spills and leaks on the wellpad; through transportation accidents; and as air pollution. Although many of these chemicals and elements have known adverse health effects, there is little evidence available on the health impacts of fracking. These health concerns have not yet been fully addressed in policy making, and the authors recommend that the voice of health professionals should be part of the public debate on fracking and that a full health impact assessment be required before companies are given the go-ahead to drill.

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Tackling climate change and reducing reliance on energy imports justify the exploitation of unconventional energy around the word. Influenced by the U.S. shale gas massive development, Chinese government set an ambitious plan to produce 6.5 billion m3 of shale gas by 2015, 60–100 billion m3 by 2020, and then 13 provinces were given priorities for exploitation. China's shale gas production will go ahead. Local government's ambitious targets combined with technical bottlenecks, lack of drilling experience, poor extraction operations, lagging infrastructure construction, imperfect price mechanism, water shortages, water contamination, and other undesired environmental effects with significant levels of uncertainty, are major impediments for shale gas revolution in China. Exploitation of shale gas reserves offers opportunities for China to meet its growing energy demands and reduce the reliance on energy imports. But China's ongoing shale gas plans should be seriously re-evaluated with reference to eco-environmental and social impacts. This is a unique and great opportunity for China to be a demonstration model, especially for other countries wanting of shale gas.

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Emerging technologies pose particularly strong challenges for risk governance when they have multidimensional and inequitable impacts, when there is scientific uncertainty about the technology and its risks, when there are strong value conflicts over the perceived benefits and risks, when decisions must be made urgently, and when the decision making environment is rife with mistrust. Shale gas development is one such emerging technology. Drawing on previous U.S. National Research Council committee reports that examined risk decision making for complex issues like these, we point to the benefits and challenges of applying the analytic-deliberative process recommened in those reports for stakeholder and public engagement in risk decision making about shale gas development in the United States. We discuss the different phases of such a process and conclude by noting the dangers of allowing controversy to ossify and the benefits of sound dialogue and learning among publics, stakeholders, industry, and regulatory decision makers.

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Gas recovery from shale formations has been made possible by advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing technology. Rapid adoption of these methods has created a surge in natural gas production in the United States and increased public concern about its environmental and human health effects. We surveyed the environmental literature relevant to shale gas development and studied over fifteen well sites and impoundments in West Virginia to evaluate pollution caused by air emissions, light and noise during drilling. Our study also characterized liquid and solid waste streams generated by drilling and hydraulic fracturing and evaluated the integrity of impoundments used to store fluids produced by hydraulic fracturing. While most shale gas wells are completed with little or no environmental contamination, we found that many of the problems associated with shale gas development resulted from inattention to accepted engineering practices such as impoundment construction, improper liner installation and a lack of institutional controls. Recommendations are provided based on the literature and our field studies. They will address not all but a great many of the deficiencies that result in environmental release of contaminants from shale gas development. We also identified areas where new technologies are needed to fully address contaminant releases to air and water.

Abstract:
We briefly describe how toxicology can inform the discussion and debate of the merits of hydraulic fracturing by providing information on the potential toxicity of the chemical and physical agents associated with this process, individually and in combination. We consider upstream activities related to bringing chemical and physical agents to the site; on-site activities including drilling of wells and containment of agents injected into or produced from the well; and downstream activities including the flow/removal of hydrocarbon products and of produced water from the site. A broad variety of chemical and physical agents are involved. As the industry expands this has raised concern about the potential for toxicological effects on ecosystems, workers and the general public. Response to these concerns requires a concerted and collaborative toxicological assessment. This assessment should take into account the different geology in areas newly subjected to hydraulic fracturing as well as evolving industrial practices that can alter the chemical and physical agents of toxicological interest. The potential for ecosystem or human exposure to mixtures of these agents presents a particular toxicological and public health challenge. These data are essential for developing a reliable assessment of the potential risks to the environment and to human health of the rapidly increasing use of hydraulic fracturing and deep underground horizontal drilling techniques for tightly bound shale gas and other fossil fuels. Input from toxicologists will be most effective when employed early in the process, before there are unwanted consequences to the environment and human health, or economic losses due to the need to abandon or rework costly initiatives.

Abstract:
With the introduction of hydraulic fracturing technology, the United States has become the largest natural gas producer in the world with a substantial portion of the production coming from shale plays. In this review, we examined current hydraulic fracturing literature including associated wastewater management on quantity and quality of groundwater. We conclude that proper documentation/reporting systems for wastewater discharge and spills need to be enforced at the federal, state, and industrial level. Furthermore, Underground Injection Control (UIC) requirements under SDWA should be extended to hydraulic fracturing operations regardless if diesel fuel is used as a fracturing fluid or not. One of the biggest barriers that hinder the advancement of our knowledge on the hydraulic fracturing process is the lack of transparency of chemicals used in the practice. Federal laws mandating hydraulic companies to disclose fracturing fluid composition and concentration not only to federal and state regulatory agencies but also to health care professionals would encourage this practice. The full disclosure of fracturing chemicals will allow future research to fill knowledge gaps for a better understanding of the impacts of hydraulic fracturing on human health and the environment.

Abstract:
Summary There is a push to increase production of unconventional gas in Australia, which would intensify the use of the controversial technique of hydraulic fracturing. The uncertainties surrounding the health implications of unconventional gas, when considered together with doubts surrounding its greenhouse gas profile and cost, weigh heavily against proceeding with proposed future developments. The health and environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing have been the source of widespread public concern. A review of available literature shows a considerable degree of uncertainty, but an emerging consensus about the main risks. Gas is often claimed to be a less climate-damaging alternative to coal; however, this is called into question by the fugitive emissions produced by unconventional gas extraction and the consequences of its export. While the health effects associated with fracturing chemicals have attracted considerable public attention, risks posed by wastewater, community disruption and the interaction between exposures are of also of concern. The health burdens of unconventional gas are likely to fall disproportionately on rural communities, the young and the elderly. While the health and environmental risks and benefits must be compared with other energy choices, coal provides a poor benchmark.

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Abstract:
Russian energy policy is usually considered in the regional context – in terms of its energy power capability and strength vis-à-vis the EU and the post-Soviet states. This study shows that in order to understand Russia's energy power, even in the regional context of its relations with the EU, it is necessary to consider the impact of international changes in the energy sector. The oil and gas shale “revolutions” represent such a global factor of influence. Even if their consequences are not yet clear, they have already become an important challenge for Russian energy policy and power. This policy-oriented article, guided by neoclassical realism, analyzes what the shale “revolutions” mean for Russia's energy policy and its power capabilities vis-à-vis the EU, how the Russian political elite perceive this development and how Russia reacts to it. In this context, Russian power capabilities look more moderate.

Abstract:
Global demand for energy has increased by more than 50 percent in the last half-century, and a similar increase is projected by 2030. This demand will increasingly be met with alternative and unconventional energy sources. Development of these resources causes disturbances that strongly impact terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The Marcellus Shale gas play covers more than 160,934 km2 in an area that provides drinking water for over 22 million people in several of the largest metropolitan areas in the United States (e.g. New York City, Washington DC, Philadelphia & Pittsburgh). Here we created probability surfaces representing development potential of wind and shale gas for portions of six states in the Central Appalachians. We used these predictions and published projections to model future energy build-out scenarios to quantify future potential impacts on surface drinking water. Our analysis predicts up to 106,004 new wells and 10,798 new wind turbines resulting up to 535,023 ha of impervious surface (3% of the study area) and upwards of 447,134 ha of impacted forest (2% of the study area). In light of this new energy future, mitigating the impacts of energy development will be one of the major challenges in the coming decades.

Abstract:
China's energy consumption is highly relying on coal, which results in serious environmental and safety problems. The government sets a target to raise unconventional energy exploitation as a part of its new 12th-Five-Year Plan. This study reviews the challenge of shale gas production and discusses the possible impacts of shale gas exploitation on the local environment. Additionally, recommendations for further work are given in concern of local environment associated with shale gas production.