Repository for Oil and Gas Energy Research (ROGER)

Abstract:
Growing attention has been paid to understanding public risk perceptions of shale gas development. This research has largely been conducted in the United States and Europe. Arguably, the environmental and social risks posed by drilling are potentially more severe in places like China, due to its geography and political system. However, little is known how those constantly exposed to risks (the “affected” public) evaluate these risks. In this study, in-depth interviews were conducted with local residents (n=25) in Weiyuan County, Sichuan Province, the region with the largest shale gas reserves in the country, to identify the perceived risks of the affected Chinese public and to explore underlying factors that impact risk perception. Our results suggest that affected Chinese residents were most concerned about groundwater contamination and air pollution above all other risks, and they tended to link risks to spatial proximity to shale gas wells. The multifaceted nature of perceived benefits played a novel and nuanced role in Chinese residents’ risk perception. Pride and disempowerment were found to attenuate the risk judgments of affected Chinese residents, which has not been observed in previous literature. Our findings provides policymakers with insight into how to improve risk communications to enhance understanding of affected publics, as well as to better design compensation schemes that may address inequities.

Abstract:
Unconventional oil and gas technologies—such as hydraulic fracturing—have drastically increased the volume of oil and gas produced in the U.S., while simultaneously bringing drilling closer to residential areas. We examine quality of life impacts of unconventional oil and gas production, arguing that how people perceive its local effects is rooted in their political identities. Using survey data from three northern Colorado communities, we employ counterfactual mediation methods to understand relationships between political identity, perceived socio-environmental and community changes from oil and gas development, and self-reported quality of life. We find significant differences in how people perceive local development based upon political identity, whereby Tea Party supporters see little negative impact, and in turn are likely to believe that local development improves their quality of life. At the other extreme, Democrats perceive more negative community changes from oil and gas development and are more apt to believe that it reduces their quality of life. Republicans who do not support the Tea Party and political independents hold more mixed views. Overall, our analysis suggests that people's perceptions of local energy development and how it matters for their quality of life is, to some degree, a function of their political identities.

Abstract:
Shale gas extraction is a highly controversial process. Despite significant proven or potential reserves, public reaction to extraction have often been negative. In some cases, this has prevented exploration. In this paper, we investigate the structure of public attitudes to shale gas extraction in the context of the United Kingdom, using a dedicated survey of 4992 respondents. We find that public attitudes to shale gas extraction have a unidimensional structure, such that all questions about the virtues and limitations of extraction are treated as a single issue. Nonetheless, this general structure masks two distinct attitudinal structures. Those with more familiarity with shale gas have a very strong unidimensional attitudinal structure, while those with the least familiarity have a two-dimensional attitudinal structure; representing distinctions between perceived positive and negative attributes. This suggests an important role for information in conditioning responses to shale gas, a factor with implications for how government addresses policy relating to shale gas extraction.

Abstract:
Despite extensive social science research into public perceptions and social responses to fracking, scholars have only begun to examine the relationship between distance to development and support or opposition for it. Importantly, the emerging studies are exclusively from the United States, and focus on communities and regions in which fracking already exists – in contrast to areas where it is proposed and still going through planning approvals. This paper reports public responses to proposed fracking in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. A total of 120 people participated in an in-person survey with a qualitative followup in four locations: the village right next to the development site, two other villages just inside and just outside the wider fracking concession area, and in the capital city of Belfast, 150 km away. A clear spatial pattern of opinion was found, from almost universal opposition to fracking next to the site, to an even threeway split between proponents, opponents and ‘neutrals’ to fracking in general, in Belfast. Results show that some risks are perceived to be more local than others, whilst perceived (economic) benefits are recognised mainly at the national level. Content analysis of local and national newspapers revealed a very clear and similar pattern. Connections to Fermanagh, through visits or long-term residence, were also clear predictors of opposition to fracking. The spatial pattern of support for fracking in Northern Ireland differs substantially from each of the contrasting patterns observed in the United States. We discuss likely reasons for this and implications for both research and policy.

Abstract:
Risk communication scholars have examined public perception of scientific consensus on a variety of politically controversial risk topics; social-psychological factors that shape such views (i.e., political ideology); and effects on issue attitudes. Few studies, however, have combined these antecedents and outcomes within a single framework – one that describes how politically polarized attitudes emerge via ideologically-divergent perceptions of scientific agreement. We address this shortcoming in the context of an emerging risk topic – unconventional oil and natural gas development (UOGD) in the United States – that is politically controversial and where scientific agreement on specific impacts along with value-laden assessments of benefit and risk are subjects of scholarly and public debate. Using a quota survey of United States adults (n = 700), we find that political conservatism heightened support indirectly via: (1) perceived scientific consensus that benefits outweigh the risks and, in turn, the belief that UOGD’s health, economic, and environmental impacts in the United States have been positive and (2) lower perception of scientific consensus that risks outweigh benefits, which likewise heightened beliefs that aforementioned impacts have been positive. We discuss implications for risk communication research related to energy development.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing, often called fracking, is a drilling technique that accesses previously inaccessible oil/gas reserves. Although the process could aid U.S. energy independence, it is controversial and public opinion is divided. Guided by agenda-setting and framing, this study content analyses news coverage of fracking (N = 524) across cable networks (CNN, Fox News, MSNBC). Results show cable news lacks substance and relies on thematic framing. While all networks failed to provide factual information, issue-related topics discussed and sources used vary ideologically. Theoretical and practical implications, which include the potential for priming audiences and influencing future behaviors and judgments, are discussed.

Abstract:
A survey with an embedded experiment was conducted to test how residents would respond to a commitment by oil and natural gas producers to conduct nearby fracking operations in a manner that is more protective of health and the environment than existing state and federal regulations. The experiment specifically assessed how the use of independent third-party certification of operations coupled with "beyond compliance" practices would influence local public support for oil and gas development. The state of Colorado was chosen due to its long history of oil and gas development, its leadership amongst states in advancing fracking, and the current local-level conflicts surrounding oil and gas development. A public opinion survey (N = 390) of a representative sample of Colorado residents found that "green certification" of a production company's activities led to substantially increased levels of support for a hypothetical nearby oil and natural gas project. Our findings suggest that oil and gas developers can obtain greater public support for their projects by voluntarily engaging in practices that are more protective than current state and federal regulations together with third-party certification of those practices. In effect, these coupled actions serve as a mechanism that promotes a firm's "social license to operate".

Abstract:
Applications for exploratory shale gas development via hydraulic fracturing (fracking) have raised concern about energy development impacts in South Africa. Initially, focus was on the arid Karoo, but interest now includes KwaZulu-Natal, a populous, agricultural province with high cultural, ecological, and economic diversity. We conducted focus groups and an online survey to determine how some South Africans perceive fracking. Focus group participants were unanimous in their opposition, primarily citing concerns over water quality and rural way-of-life. The survey confirmed broad consistency with focus group responses. When asked which provinces might be affected by fracking, KwaZulu-Natal ranked behind provinces in the Karoo, suggesting an awareness bias towards Karoo projects. Frequently-identified concerns regarding Agriculture and Natural Resources were Reduced quality of water, Negative impacts to ecosystems and natural biodiversity, Reduced quantity of water, and Pollution hazards. Frequent concerns regarding Social, Cultural, and Local Community issues were Impacts to human health, Visual/aesthetic degradation of tourism areas, Degradation of local infrastructure, and Physical degradation of tourism sites. Most survey respondents were pessimistic about potential benefits of fracking to South Africa’s domestic energy supply, and did not agree fracking would reduce negative impacts of coal mining or create jobs. Survey respondents were pessimistic about government’s preparedness for fracking and agreed fracking created opportunity for corruption. Many respondents agreed they would consider fracking when voting, and identified needs for more research on fracking in South Africa, which focused heavily on environmental impacts, especially water, in addition to the welfare of local citizens and their communities.

Abstract:
This paper seeks to expand an emerging, multi-disciplinary body of work about tradeoffs in the agriculture-oil and gas nexus by offering evidence of the ways that farm and ranch operators experienced and negotiated costs and benefits of hosting oil and gas in three U.S. oil and gas plays. We report results of mail survey sent to landowners in four rural counties in three U.S. oil and gas regions (Marcellus, Powder River Basin and Bakken) and specifically data from farmers and ranchers about perceptions and experiences of the agriculture-oil and gas nexus (n = 96). The data provided through closed- and open-ended questions suggest, from the perspective of those hosting energy infrastructure on farms and ranches, oil and gas development has enhanced agriculture operations and rural livelihoods but is not without negative impacts or tradeoffs. We introduce the balancing act as a useful framework for considering tradeoffs associated with hosting extractive industries as it allows space for the “balance” between economic activities to be impossible, aspirational or achievable. The study observes that mechanisms through which positive and negative effects operate vary according to agricultural context. Implications for research and practice in the agriculture-energy nexus are discussed.

Abstract:
Data collected from random samples of residents and absentee landowners in two counties in the Eagle Ford Shale region of South Texas were used to examine the perceptions regarding influence, inclusion, and trust of local leaders and other stakeholders in the area. Additionally, two hypotheses pertaining to the association between individuals’ perceptions of inclusion by local governments—both city and county—and individuals’ levels of trust in those governments as sources of information about the positive and negative impacts of shale oil and/or natural gas development were tested and supported. Substantive descriptive and statistical analyses are reported.

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Abstract:
In 2011, Maryland established the Marcellus Shale Safe Drilling Initiative to determine whether and how gas production in the state could be accomplished without causing unacceptable risks to public health, safety, natural resources, and the environment. This initiative required a statewide health impact assessment of unconventional natural gas development and production via hydraulic fracturing (i.e., fracking). Increasing number of studies have shown that fracking has significant potential to impact health and non-health outcomes. However, because of its rapid development, there is a lack of substantive research related to the public health effects of fracking. I discuss my firsthand experiences as a medical anthropologist and public health researcher on a multi-disciplinary research team tasked with conducting Maryland’s first health impact assessment to determine the potential public health impacts associated with fracking. I focus on how fracking, as a relatively new economically viable source of energy and an emergent focus of study, brings about public and scientific anxieties, and how these anxieties shape subsequent environmental and health policy decision making processes. I reflect on the potential role of social scientists in matters of scientific knowledge production and resulting policy decisions and the broader implications of such engagement for public social science.

Abstract:
This paper situates the question of shale gas mining in South Africa within broader debates on policy co-ordination within governmental systems. The prospect of shale gas mining has posed severe challenges for the complex inter-governmental system in South Africa. Three key Departments are affected by possible shale gas mining: Mineral Resources, Environmental Affairs and Water Resources. Each of these Departments have different relationships with the provincial and municipal "spheres of government". The Department of Mineral Resources has attempted to promote shale gas mining with no reference to municipalities, whereas the other two Departments have attempted to build up municipal capacity. Municipalities have key functions which are protected in the Constitution. However, many municipalities are weak institutions, unwilling to defend their powers. The paper examines Municipal Integrated Development Plans in the potential shale gas region. Most municipalities seem to have no awareness at all of the shale gas issue. Recently, a High Court ruled that any shale gas mining regulations must be made by the Department of Environmental Affairs. With its more decentralist approach to governance, it will mean that municipalities will have more opportunities to participate in shale gas mining decisions.

Abstract:
Over the past two decades, the U.S. energy sector has undergone significant transition. Coal— historically the primary power source for the U.S. economy—has declined markedly in both production and consumption. Renewables like wind and solar have become much more economically viable in recent years. However, perhaps the most dramatic change has been the drastic increase in oil and gas production since the mid-2000s, due largely to the convergence of unconventional technologies like hydraulic fracturing and directional drilling. The changing energy system presents both opportunities and challenges for local governments, especially those in rural areas that face unique fiscal struggles. In this paper, we present results of a survey of local policy actors in the Mountain West states of Colorado and Utah. Policy actors assessed the fiscal and public service impacts of different types of energy development and we tie these survey responses to spatial energy development data. Results imply that policy actors have nuanced views of all types of energy, though fossil fuels (especially coal) are generally seen as more fiscally beneficial than renewables. Generally, the spatial proximity of a type of energy development has only a weak relationship with perceived fiscal and public service costs and benefits.

Abstract:
Public opposition to fracking is one of numerous movements expressing concern about health or environmental risks of a (usually) new technology. These have at their core an esoteric dispute between technical experts, but laypeople also become actively involved, usually as volunteers. They may live close to pertinent sites, motivated by fears for their families and property, or they may be people living farther away, attracted to the opposition for ideological reasons. (Opposition to fracking is a politically liberal position.) Activism is increasingly motivated when the issue is “hot” and diminishes when it cools down. According to Quantity of Coverage Theory (QCT), the “hotness” of an issue – therefore the degree of activism -- largely depends on its presence in the mass media. The American anti-fracking movement arose fairly quickly around 2010–11. News coverage peaked during 2012–14 and is now diminishing. Similar peaks and declines are observed in British and German news media, consistent with the power of central American media to influence news coverage in other industrial nations. Inferentially, from declining news coverage, the anti-fracking movement is waning, perhaps dying. Lacking direct measures of activism, QCT provides a lens through which to see the rise and fall of the movement.

Abstract:
Public resistance to shale gas in the Netherlands came as a surprise to governing actors. The Netherlands was a ‘gas land’ and shale gas extraction had been successfully framed as ‘business as usual’. However, in the eyes of the general public it turned into a ‘risky business’, and national government had to adjust their risk governance strategies. This study of the dynamics between national government’s risk governance strategies, framing, and societal responses, shows that this wicked problem could not be managed by authoritative risk governance strategies, nor by collaborative risk governance strategies. Rather, these strategies added fuel to the fire, and resistance increased. The results indicate that all sorts of risk governance strategies, but especially collaborative risk governance strategies, should better take into account the normative dimensions of a conflict, and reflect on who is the legitimate actor to govern the issue. This ‘controversy governance’ includes the possibility to discuss the desirability and necessity of mining activities, and a reflection on who is a legitimate decision maker on a wicked problem.

Abstract:
The Eagle Ford and Bakken shale oil plays in the United States (US) have experienced dramatic production increases since 2010, with implications for their communities in Texas and North Dakota (and to a lesser extent, Montana). In both cases, production increased from insignificant or low levels to about a quarter of US production each over five years, largely due to prices and the availability of modern horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing techniques. This comparative case study of the Eagle Ford and Bakken regions focuses on the effects of these rapid changes on communities. Overall, this work finds that dynamics associated with strained infrastructure followed patterns similar to those seen in other modern US boom regions. Bakken participants perceived impacts as more severe than Eagle Ford participants, potentially due to greater isolation and limitations associated with extreme winter conditions. In both regions, anticipation of a bust affected behavior in a manner not commonly observed in regions where prior boom/bust cycles do not exist in living memory. Both Bakken and Eagle Ford participants described an idealized future where long-term shale-related prosperity could stabilize their communities, despite an understanding that this was an unlikely outcome.

Abstract:
This article critically reviews social science research on unconventional hydrocarbon development in the United Kingdom. I analyse fifty research articles published over the last half decade. The articles fit into three primary categories: (1) public perceptions, (2) discourse and rhetoric, and (3) planning and regulation. This review reveals both what social scientific inquiry has taught us and what gaps remain. We have reasonable understanding of: extent of public support for and opposition to development, basic factors related to support and opposition, procedural and distributive justice concerns leading to opposition, repeated academic critiques of UK planning guidance and regulation, and the frequent use of environmental risks and economic benefits as competing discursive frames. We lack understanding of: how discourse and rhetoric about shale gas, or how knowledge about development, influence public perceptions; how perceptions and discourse at local and regional levels in the UK compare with the national level; what information sources the public rely on and trust on this topic; whether estimates of economic benefits are reliable; and importantly, how perceptions, discourse, and policy will evolve in light of imminent changes to the production and policy landscape. I conclude with recommendations for filling the emergent lacunae in our understanding.

Abstract:
The paper explores the emergence of different publics for shale gas issue along the development of exploration activities in Poland. Through the concept of co-production, it is argued that publics do not pre-exist socio-technical realities but that they are organized by various actors together with these realities. The paper argues that scaling is an important aspect of the co-production of publics as it helps to navigate among them and the issues they represent and govern them according to their scalar relevance: local, regional, national or international. As political realities, publics become important terrains within which relations between state and citizens are negotiated.

Abstract:
Examining the early stages of coalition formation and how they may react to rapid institutional changes provides insight into how like-minded policy actors pursue their goals and coordinate their behavior in relatively unstable institutional systems. This study observes activity in the policy subsystem of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) in the southern Argentinian province of Neuquén. Using media sources, we identify policy actors, their support or opposition to the expansion of unconventional oil and gas production through fracking and their agreement or disagreement on the topic of fracking, both before and after Chevron and YPF (the large publicly-owned Argentinian energy company) signed a controversial accord to develop parts of the Vaca Muerta formation, one of the largest in the world. Using Social Network Analysis, we show that two coalitions (pro and anti fracking) exist, and that they exhibit a high potential for intra-coalitional coordination and inter-coalitional conflict. Following the signing of the accord, which we see as an example of an “institutional shock”, significant increases in activity and the potential for intra-coordination within the anti-fracking coalition were observed, along with an increase in the potential for conflict between the coalitions. Our results illuminate shed new light on how coalitions may form and evolve in unstable institutional systems where political power is unevenly distributed.

Abstract:
This perspective paper examines the current policy landscape for hydraulic fracturing in China, with a focus on the role of public attitudes toward shale gas in China. We highlight the need for further research on public perceptions and responses in a non-democratic society, both for the potential protection of residents who might be affected by the technology as well the valuable research data that can be contrasted with public perspectives and engagement in other countries. Although the empirical findings presented here are limited due to this being very preliminary research, our goal is to shed light on what existing data shows about current understanding and perceptions. We discuss preliminary data collected during a research trip to Beijing in late December 2017, and contrast it with the few empirical studies on China that exist to date (Sher and Wu, 2018; Yu et al., 2018). Our research demonstrates the need for further investigation of understanding and perceptions of shale gas in China, particularly as other countries (EXAMPLES) are beginning to look at expanding their own shale gas resources. A reflection on this will also lead to a discussion of the extent to which data from China does or does not relate to that from other nations.

Abstract:
New applications of hydraulic fracturing (HF) methods to release natural gas from shale deposits have emerged as a hotly contested political issue. Consequently, researchers commonly seek to identify factors shaping public perceptions of this technology. While research conducted in North America has focused primarily on the United States, this paper contributes to a growing body of work examining Canadian perceptions toward HF. We build on the existing regionally-focused literature on public perceptions of HF in Canada with an analysis of data collected from a nationally-representative (n = 2012) survey of attitudes toward hydraulic fracturing administered to the adult Canadian population in 2016. We find that an individual’s cultural biases are strong predictors of their attitudes toward hydraulic fracturing, and that these effects are moderated by levels of issue familiarity. Analysis of an embedded survey experiment further reveals that attitudes in Canada are somewhat affected by cues regarding the developer’s status (i.e. whether a Canadian, American or government-owned corporation), and that a nationalist bias is especially prominent among people with hierarchical predispositions. We further find that familiarity with hydraulic fracturing is associated with significantly less support, and that this relationship is moderated by a respondent’s region of residence. We discuss these findings in light of the existing literature and outline areas for future research.

Abstract:
Changes to the material and social systems that underpin energy infrastructures are inextricably linked to energy justice concerns, and the timeframes of those changes significantly affect their outcomes. Temporal aspects of energy initiatives and their impacts are thus an important site for examining emergent public views on new energy proposals, inequality, and energy justice. We propose urgency is a particularly rich concept through which to study (i) the justice and socioenvironmental implications of energy systems and technological change and (ii) how people make sense of contested energy timeframes. Here, we present findings from a series of public deliberation workshops held in the United States and United Kingdom to discuss projected impacts of shale oil and gas extraction by hydraulic fracturing. We encountered critical similarities across sites, as in widespread public resistance to issue framings that foreground urgency-based claims in support of their objectives. Participants assessed energy initiatives with particular reference to temporality and urgency, and we argue these views raise justice concerns regarding distribution, the creation of environmental inequalities, public participation, and recognition. We also suggest a focus on urgency provides fresh perspectives on justice issues surrounding the speed and direction of technological development in general and of energy transitions in particular.

Abstract:
The extraction of oil and gas has increasingly shaped Canada’s economy and culture in recent years. As Canada attempts to move toward a low carbon economy, it is important to know how Canadians perceive the risks and opportunities associated with various energy sources. In particular, fracking, or hydraulic fracturing, is one such energy extraction technique that has received much media attention but little systematic research from social scientists in Canada. Drawing on survey data from a representative sample of citizens in a province that has utilized fracking extensively (British Columbia) and one that has placed a moratorium on its use (New Brunswick), this article examines public perceptions of the use of hydraulic fracturing. In particular, this paper explores the risks and opportunities people perceive from this technology in these different provincial energy contexts. The findings suggest that while New Brunswick residents saw more benefits and fewer risks from fracking than British Columbia residents, the variables shaping perceptions within each province were mostly similar. We argue that contemporary risk theorizing should more closely consider how people perceive opportunities associated with the use of this disruptive technology as well as how context shapes people’s perceptions.

Abstract:
Aotearoa New Zealand is a little-known oil and gas producer with a long history of conventional, small-volume extraction in the province of Taranaki. The development of unconventional technologies coupled with political and economic interest in expanding extraction positioned communities and landscapes with no previous history into becoming emergent, extractive frontiers. Data from interviews, observations, and publicly available documents were collected and analyzed to study how fracking vulnerable communities responded to oil and gas proposals for exploration. This study found that residents of the first-fracked communities of Taranaki became national experts, informants, and translators for the fracking vulnerable regions. This study also found that first-fracked communities in English-speaking nations served, whether knowingly or not, as an additional well of publicly accessible insight whether they experienced earthquakes in Oklahoma, mobilized resistance in England, or locked their gates in Australia. This global exchange revealed a globalization of citizen knowledge for vulnerable communities to challenge becoming the next frontier. Finally, this study found that a civic boomerang occurred, in which residents of the frontiers who were opposed to hydraulic fracturing discovered the problems of extraction and turned a more critical lens on the industry’s workaday practices in the province of Taranaki.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing has provided a persistent, polarizing, and highly politicized source of controversy internationally, and in numerous national contexts for just under a decade. This research uses fracking operations in New Zealand as a vignette through which to understand the underlying causes of controversy and the appropriateness of attempts to address them. A multi-method approach using interviews (n=25), diagrammatic analysis, and newsprint media was applied to evidence two major findings. Firstly, previous attempts to explain fracking controversy based on social constructivist theory lack a multi-scalar approach to the assessment of factors that influence risk perceptions. It is found that risk perception surrounding fracking in New Zealand reflects intra-scalar interactions between factors originating at the international, national, regional and local scale. Secondly, there is a concerning absence of critique pertaining to the concept of ‘social license to operate’ (SLO), which has been advocated both internationally and nationally as an appropriate form of stakeholder engagement. This paper contributes to the SLO outcomes literature by establishing a need to consider multi-scalar influences on risk perception when explaining diverse SLO outcomes in communities where fracking operations are prospective or already taking place.

Abstract:
France has a long history in mining and, to a lesser extent, in hydrocarbon extraction, but these industries were both in decline by the end of the 20th century. Following the American shale boom in the 2000′s, there was a sudden renewal of hydrocarbon exploration in 2010 with new exploration licenses being delivered for unconventional oil and gas projects. These projects first remained confined to specialists of such industries until the end of 2010, when a massive social movement opposed shale gas exploration. This paper aims at drawing a picture of this social movement and its narrative work to obtain the ban on hydraulic fracturing by the French government in 2011. Showing the oil and gas supporters’ failed attempts to reopen the debate in the following years, we outline how the ban contributed to negatively shape the representation of extractive industries outside unconventional hydrocarbons. We demonstrate that i) public and political perceptions of unconventional gas in general were built mostly during the sudden burst of mobilization in late 2010, with the opponent’s narratives encountering almost no resistance, ii) previous knowledge and experience with extractive industries in some areas of France facilitates social license for unconventional gas without the use of hydraulic fracturing there, but it does not guarantee the development of the industry, iii) the controversy about hydraulic fracturing participated to shape negative perception about extractive industries in France in general, including ore mining.

Abstract:
‘Fracking’, or unconventional gas development via hydraulic fracturing (hereafter ‘UGD’), has been closely tied to global climate change in academic discourse. Researchers have debated the life cycle emissions of shale gas versus coal, rates of methane leakage from wellhead production and transmission infrastructure, the extent to which coal would be displaced by gas as a source of energy, the appropriate time-scale for accounting for the global warming potentials of methane and carbon dioxide, surface versus airborne methane measurements, and the effect of lowered energy prices on gas consumption. Little research, however, has examined the degree to which these potential connections between UGD and climate change are relevant to the general public. This article presents two surveys, one of a representative national (US) sample and one of a representative sample of residents in the Marcellus Shale region of Pennsylvania and New York. It examines whether respondents associated UGD with climate change, and the relationship between this association and their support for, or opposition to, UGD. The results reveal that beliefs about many other potential impacts of UGD explain more variation in support and opposition than do beliefs about UGD’s association with climate change. Furthermore, most other impacts of UGD are viewed as having more effect on quality of life if they were to occur, at least amongst the Marcellus Shale survey sample. The article concludes with implications of the findings for policy and communication on UGD.Key policy insights Public opinion about unconventional gas development (UGD or ‘fracking’) is affected less by beliefs about its impact on global climate change, than about several other more local factors.Communication tailored to increase awareness of UGD’s impacts would likely be most effective when focusing on the local level, as opposed to national or global impacts.Messaging about UGD’s relationship with carbon emissions would have more effect in national-level discourse, as opposed to messaging targeted at communities experiencing or potentially experiencing development.To maintain credibility and societal trust, communication on the global climate impacts of UGD needs to be informative but non-persuasive.

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Social equity is an important normative construct in public administration. However, its operationalization is vague and it is empirically underutilized. This article combines political economy, social equity, and environmental justice literatures to explore the contentious issue of hydraulic fracturing for natural gas (commonly called “fracking”). Through interviews with local officials, we show that local officials are aware of equity issues, many take action to reduce inequities related to gas drilling, and equity is often at odds with private property rights. Finally, equity issues are more likely to be associated with inequitable distribution of costs and benefits than traditional distributional social equity.

Abstract:
The expansion of unconventional sources of natural gas across the world has generated public controversy surrounding fracking drilling methods. Public debates continue to reverberate through policy domains despite very inconclusive biophysical evidence of net harm. As a consequence, there is a need to test the hypothesis that resistance to fracking is due to the way it redistributes economic and environmental risks. As in many other communities, opposition to fracking is common in central Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, (USA) but the rationale underpinning opposition is poorly understood. We test the prevailing assumption in the environmental management literature that fracking opposition is motivated by knowledge deficits and/or not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) politics. This study uses Q methodology to examine emergent perspectives and sub-discourses within the fracking opposition debate in central Westmoreland County, PA. Q methodology offers a systematic and iterative use of both quantitative and qualitative research techniques to explore frequently overlooked marginal viewpoints that are critical to understanding the fracking problem. The analysis reveals four different narratives of factors amongst people actively involved in locally opposing fracking, labeled (1) Future Fears; (2) NIMBY (3) Community Concerns; and (4) Distrust Stakeholders. The conflicts that emerge across these four factors are indicative of deeper discourse within the fracking debate that signifies diversity in motivations, values, and convictions, and suggests the inadequacy of relying on knowledge deficit and/or NIMBY explanations to fracking politics.

Abstract:
The news media’s increased reliance on visual communication to illustrate complex processes and promote learning stresses the importance of investigating how visual content impacts the understanding of scientific issues. In this paper, we investigate how members of the public interpret and make sense of differentially framed images of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) depicting environmental risk, economic benefit, or issue protest. For the analysis, a repeated measures online experiment was conducted with 250 participants to evaluate 40 photographs of fracking operations and consequences. Quantitative coding and thematic analysis of open-ended responses to the images reveal that standing attitudes, operationalized as support, opposition, or indecision about fracking, segments viewers into distinct groups and shapes interpretations of environmental risk and economic benefit. Issue opponents are more likely to indicate concern for the environment regardless of frame shown, whereas undecideds and supporters cite the impact on human health more frequently, largely in relation to job site safety. Supporters also see the least ambiguity, and most economic gains, in images about the controversial production practice.

Abstract:
We examine how different sources and types of information affect the knowledge of landowners confronting a controversial emergent technology, high-volume hydraulic fracturing (HVHF). HVHF may substantially affect the environmental, health, and economic and social realities faced by communities where drilling occurs. Yet how landowners in these areas learn about HVHF is largely unknown. Understanding landowner knowledge is important because HVHF development depends on voluntary choices of landowners, less knowledgeable landowners may be vulnerable to industry malfeasance, and support for HVHF is linked to familiarity with the industry. Using an original survey of Eastern Ohio landowners affected by HVHF, we find that they most frequently get information about HVHF from the news, oil/gas companies, social connections, and the internet. Information sourcing varies with demographics, socioeconomics, and political partisanship. Although landowners are exposed to many sources of information, most do not help them feel more informed about HVHF. Self-perceived familiarity with HVHF varies positively with the number of sources consulted, internet research, and receipt of information from the oil/gas industry and industry advocacy groups. Landowners often receive unsolicited information about HVHF, but this information rarely helps them feel more informed.

Abstract:
China has recently become one of the world’s largest shale gas producers. However, little is known about how shale gas development and fracking affect local communities in China nor how local communities view this development. Drawing on fieldwork conducted during August 2015 in two villages in Sichuan province and Chongqing municipality, this article shows that while fracking leads to serious environmental and social problems there are also substantial economic and social benefits. Furthermore, this study uncovers both active and resigned support of shale gas development in rural China depending on whether local residents prioritize economics or politics.

Abstract:
This paper discusses a survey of public opinions on hydraulic fracturing (‘fracking’) for shale gas, conducted with a representative sample of 1745 British adults. Unusually, it examines beliefs about positive and negative statements about fracking as well as support/opposition. A majority of respondents correctly answered an initial question testing basic knowledge of shale gas extraction. More respondents supported fracking in Britain (36%) than opposed it (32%) but only 22% supported fracking locally, while 45% were opposed. Respondents were more united in negative beliefs than positive beliefs about fracking. More knowledgeable participants held more polarised views and were significantly more likely than others to agree with negative statements and to oppose fracking in their local area. More respondents disagreed than agreed that it is possible to compensate for fracking risks by payments to local communities. Policy implications include: increasing public knowledge about fracking will not necessarily lead to more positive beliefs and support regarding shale gas developments; promoting alleged economic benefits of shale gas is not enough to ensure support; engaging in genuinely inclusive participatory decision-making may be more likely to increase support than offering payments to communities; alternatively, developing more renewable energy capacity promises to be more popular than fracking.

Abstract:
In 2014, China became the world's third country to accomplish shale gas commercial development, following the United States and Canada. China still however lacks a comprehensive analysis of its public's concerns about potential environmental risks of shale gas exploration, particularly those of local residents near extraction sites. This paper specifically aims to explore risks perceived as associated with shale gas development in the Changning-Weiyuan area of Sichuan Basin, by conducting a face-to-face household survey with 730 participants interviewed. Some 86% of respondents reported their belief that shale gas exploitation causes more than three types of negative impacts, the most commonly perceived being noise, underground water contamination and geological disruption. Associated variables that were statistically significant predictors of risk perception include demographic characteristics (age, gender, education), environmental awareness level, landslide experience, awareness of past shale gas accidents, information sources, general knowledge about shale gas, and perspectives on whether negative impacts can be observed and controlled, along with trust in the central government and the petroleum company. Our findings implications are discussed, with the goal of informing both central and local authorities’ policy development in protecting local residents from risks of shale gas exploitation and better communicating risks to residents.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, is the process of extracting reserves of natural gas and oil from shale formations deep underground. This process, initially met with public support in the United Kingdom, has since become a highly contentious issue primarily debated between government, industry, and anti-fracking advocacy groups. Through the employment of three levels of agenda-building as a theoretical lens of examination (object, attribute, and network connections), this study investigated the political discourse between these stakeholder groups and national news media in the United Kingdom between 2012 and 2014. In total, 1354 unique messages were coded, with 840 information subsidies and 514 news media content analyzed. To determine the short-, mid-, and long-term effects of agenda-building, a time-lag analysis was conducted. The results suggest solid support for all three levels of agenda-building. Our findings indicate that anti-fracking advocacy groups were more successful at influencing news media content across all three time periods, in addition to supporting the growing influence of digital information subsidies as an effective tool for agenda-building strategies. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Abstract:
Narratives are highly consequential in policy processes because they shape public perception of policy issues. The Narrative Policy Framework (NPF) seeks to predict the extent to which narratives are strategically used to influence policy outcomes. Its core hypotheses center around a winning vs. losing dichotomy, in which winning and losing narratives employ distinct sets of strategies. Due to the newness of the theory, there are few empirical tests of its components, and their results are inconclusive. We posit that the winning–losing paradigm does not accurately predict narrative strategy use. To test this hypothesis, we examine a policy dilemma where contextually similar jurisdictions adopted multiple different policy solutions over a common time period. From 2008 to 2012, more than 260 New York municipalities passed policies related to hydraulic fracturing (fracking). We analyze editorial content from two local newspapers in central New York whose distribution covers municipalities that adopted anti- and pro-fracking policies. Our findings reveal that narrators consistently use narrative strategies that correspond to the side of the issue they support, regardless of whether they are winning or losing the policy debate. This suggests the NPF’s winning–losing dichotomy may not be not well suited to predicting narrative strategy use or policy outcomes. 叙事影响了公众对政策问题的看法，所以其在政策过程中非常重要。叙事政策框架（NPF）旨在预测叙事将会在多大程度上被策略性地运用以影响政策结果。其核心假设围绕着成功与失败的二分法，即成功与失败的叙事会采用不同的策略。由于该理论的新颖性，现有文献仍很少实证检验其构成要素，并且尚没有一个决定性的结论。我们认为成功—失败的二分范式并不能准确预测叙事策略的使用。为了验证这一假设，我们研究了一个政策难题，即相似的行政区在相同的情况下、同一时间段内采用了多种不同的政策解决方案。自2008年到2012年，有260多个纽约地方自治区通过了与水力压裂（或称压裂）相关的政策。我们分析了纽约中部两家当地报纸的编辑评论，这两家报纸的发行地涵盖了对压裂政策持正反观点的地方自治区。我们的研究结果表明，叙事者始终会使用与他们所支持的问题相对应的叙事策略，这无关他们在这场政策论战中的结果是成功还是失败。这表明NPF的成功—失败二分法可能并不太适合用来预测叙事策略的使用或是政策结果。

Abstract:
Abstract. Explaining the mechanisms that structure policy networks is an important subject of public management research as networks are key mechanisms of conv

Abstract:
Recent growth in unconventional oil and gas development is controversial, fueling an ongoing U.S. policy debate. Central to these discussions is hydraulic fracturing, or “fracking,” a well-stimulation technique that has become synonymous with unconventional oil and gas extraction methods. This research applies the Narrative Policy Framework (NPF) to explore how culturally nuanced narratives shape individuals’ policy preferences toward fracking regulations. A census-balanced internet panel from Oregon and Arkansas (n = 1,145) is used to conduct a survey experiment where participants are randomly assigned to four groups and exposed to information regarding fracking practices. The control group receives a baseline fact list while three treatment groups are exposed to one of three culturally distinct narratives: an egalitarian narrative, a hierarch narrative, or an individualist narrative. Applying ANOVA and causal mediation analysis to this experimental data, we show that while there is no direct effect of narrative treatments on the formation of individuals’ fracking policy preferences, culturally nuanced narratives do influence attitudes on fracking policies indirectly through their effects on individuals’ reactions towards villain characters presented in the narratives. These findings describe a more complex cognitive interplay between narrative communication and policy preference formation than depicted in extant NPF scholarship, thereby challenging commonly held NPF assertions.

Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of the extant literature pertaining to perceived and objective social impacts associated with shale energy development in the southern United States. Findings from selected sociological studies conducted in the Barnett, Eagle Ford, and Haynesville shale plays reveal somewhat paradoxical perceptions with respect to shale energy development among both local leaders and the general citizenry. Whereas community leaders and residents recognize that not all economic effects of shale energy development have been positive, they generally appreciate and view favorably certain accompanying economic and/or service-related benefits. Typically, the opposite is the case with respect to the objective and perceived social and/or environmental issues that have accompanied shale energy development. Recent studies by several geographers and their colleagues in both the Barnett and Eagle Ford regions have complemented and furthered the sociological findings on the economic/service-related benefits and social/environmental costs associated with shale energy development in the southern United States. Results from their studies reveal a substantially uneven spatial distribution of positive and negative effects. I conclude this review by identifying several knowledge gaps and proposing suggestions for future research.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing is an energy extraction process that is increasingly attracting controversy. This article seeks to outline how the media report hydraulic fracturing (or ‘fracking’), and to explore its place within the reporting of energy concerns generally. To this end, it draws on an environmental communication perspective to understand media coverage of the issue and the processes that shape it. This review reveals that media coverage of fracking is partitioned according to discussions of the economic benefits or the environmental risks associated with the process. Further, these observed patterns in the coverage appear to mirror the recognised claims made about the issue and the influence from national polity on energy production and security. While there is evidence that news organisations and journalism mediate what is reported, their readers appear largely ambivalent or undecided on the issue at present. Therefore, it is argued that future research must continue to examine the coverage of hydraulic fracturing, its context, production and wider reception to develop our understanding of the role of the media in national conversations on fracking, energy and the environment.

Abstract:
This paper considers public support for increased regulation of unconventional oil and gas development in Colorado. We examine the role of community economic identity and investigate the possibility of “colliding treadmills”in local political economies as drivers of policy preferences.We find that many place-based variables do little to predict regulatory support, but the cost associated with regulation (increased taxes) and political identity are especially important. Further, this paper is one of a handful of sociological analyses to employ the contingent valuation method for environmental valuation, in doing so it provides a first step toward establishing an empirically rigorous sociology of environmental valuation.

Abstract:
With the rapid growth of unconventional oil and natural gas development transforming the U.S. economic and physical landscape, social scientists have increasingly explored the spatial dynamics of public support for this issue—that is, whether people closer to unconventional oil and gas development are more supportive or more opposed. While theoretical frameworks like construal-level theory and the “Not in My Backyard” (or NIMBY) moniker provide insight into these spatial dynamics, case studies in specific locations experiencing energy development reveal substantial variation in community responses. Larger-scale studies exploring the link between proximity and support have been hampered by data quality and availability. We draw on a unique data set that includes geo-coded data from national surveys (nine waves; n = 19,098) and high-resolution well location data to explore the relationship between proximity and both familiarity with and support for hydraulic fracturing. We use two different measures of proximity—respondent distance to the nearest well and the density of wells within a certain radius of the respondent's location. We find that both types of proximity to new development are linked to more familiarity with hydraulic fracturing, even after controlling for various individual and contextual factors, but only distance-based proximity is linked to more support for the practice. When significant, these relationships are similar to or exceed the effects of race, income, gender, and age. We discuss the implications of these findings for effective risk communication as well as the importance of incorporating spatial analysis into public opinion research on perceptions of energy development.

Abstract:
Ecosystems worldwide have been subject to new or intensified energy development facilitated by technologies such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, activity that has generated concern for air, water, biotic, and social resources. Application of these technologies in the development of the Bakken oil patch has made it one of the most productive petroleum plays in North America, causing unprecedented landscape industrialization of otherwise rural, agricultural counties in western North Dakota. The region is isolated, and development impacts have not been well-studied. To identify concerns of citizens of the Bakken and determine how research and policy might support them, we conducted a two-part study: First, we held focus groups with resource management and community leaders in three major oil-producing counties. Second, we used an outline of the major concerns expressed by focus group members as a survey for landowners and farm/ranch operators. We found little relationship between survey respondents' reported categorization of energy impacts and actual land area impacted, suggesting factors such as attitude towards development, degree of compensation, and level of disturbance are relevant. Landowners agreed with focus groups on the nature of relationships between energy companies and locals and development impacts on infrastructure and communities; those reporting greater impacts tended to agree more strongly. But many specific problems described in focus groups were not widely reported in the survey, suggesting energy-community relationships can be improved through state-level public policy and respect from energy companies for locals and their way of life. Consideration of these concerns in future energy policy—both in the Bakken and worldwide—could reduce social tension, lessen environmental impact, and increase overall social, economic, and environmental efficiency in energy development.

Abstract:
This paper applies Douglas’ cultural theory of risk to understand perceptions of risk associated with oil and gas development in eastern Montana. Based on the analysis of interviews with 36 rural residents, findings show the dominant perception of risk is most closely aligned with an Individualist worldview. Despite direct experience with oil or wastewater spills, most interviewees described spills as “no big deal”, viewed nature as resilient, and felt that the economic benefits outweigh negative impacts. Cultural theory was a useful heuristic for understanding this dominant worldview, as well as identifying points of deviation. For example, interviewees discussed the benefits of landowner associations – a more Egalitarian approach to dealing with oil companies. Some landowners relied on external authorities (e.g., sheriff) when dealing with oil companies, revealing a Hierarchical approach to issues they face. Interviewees expressed frustration with the lack of enforcement of existing regulations, which can be interpreted as either support for – or indictment of – Hierarchical solutions. While the Individualist worldview is dominant, our qualitative analysis reveals the complex tensions at work among rural residents. The results suggest areas where policymakers, advocacy groups, and residents may find common ground to address potential environmental and health risks.

Abstract:
Do facts lead to positive/negative views about energy development or vice versa? The answer matters crucially for policy and communication – if perceptions of what is true (beliefs) precede feelings (attitudes), additional information could shape views on an energy technology; yet, if attitudes precede beliefs, the usefulness of communication, either for influencing beliefs or simply making the public more informed, is far less clear. A long history of social-psychological research asserts that individuals’ beliefs predict their attitudes on environmental issues. Nevertheless, other theories intimate the reverse – attitudes shape beliefs, specifically on newly emergent, controversial topics. We investigated whether attitudes (i.e., support and opposition) about the contentious issue of shale gas development stem from or lead to beliefs about development. We collected data from random-sample surveys – of residents in the Marcellus Shale region and of a national US sample. Factor analyses and structural equation modelling lead us to question the dominant assumption that beliefs precede attitudes – the reverse, or a recursive relationship, appears more likely. Broad values and place attachment precede attitude formation more reliably than beliefs about impacts do – suggesting need for a larger focus in energy policy on core values and the ways in which development could foster or compromise these values.

Abstract:
In recent years, the U.S. has undergone a boom in domestic oil and gas production driven by unconventional drilling technologies. Political affiliation is one of the most consequential factors for a range of environmental and technological attitudes but it's relationship to policy preferences for unconventional oil and gas development is less understood. In this manuscript, we consider how political affiliation impacts unconventional oil and gas policy preferences. We develop a novel understanding of "regulatory exaggeration" we argue that conservative opposition to energy regulations is at least partly a result of a misjudgment of the stringency of current regulations. Statistical models, indicate that, while conservatives are opposed to unconventional oil and gas regulations in the abstract, they endorse a range of specific policies more stringent than those currently in place. Further, political conservativism is associated with paradoxically believing that current regulatory environment is too stringent and supporting more stringent, specific policies.

Abstract:
Public acceptance is crucial for the implementation of energy technologies. Hydraulic fracturing is a technology widely used in the USA for natural gas production from shale formations, but currently finds strong public opposition worldwide, especially in Europe. Shale gas exploitation and exploration have the potential to significantly reduce import dependency in several countries, including Spain. To better understand public opinion on this issue, this article reports a survey targeting both the entire Spanish population and the inhabitants of the province of Burgos, the location where shale gas exploration permits have already been issued. Results demonstrate that half of the Spanish population opposes shale gas, and this opposition increases in autonomous communities that are closer to possible exploration sites. The results also show that socio-demographic aspects are not strong predictors of opposition. In addition, Burgos' population show different behaviours toward shale gas that demonstrates that proximity and prospect of shale gas development affects opinion. Finally, there is still a great level of unfamiliarity with high volume hydraulic fracturing and shale gas in both populations sampled.

Abstract:
Unconventional oil and gas development using hydraulic fracturing has caused conflict and controversy across the globe including the U.S. where some States banned the practice. Nevertheless, North Dakota (ND) has supported the practice because the State perceives the risks to be acceptable and because it has brought growth and opportunities to small communities. However, social acceptance of new technology is based on a number of factors and not contingent on economic benefits. To date, no research has been conducted to understand public risk perception of hazards associated with produced water from hydraulic fracturing in ND. This study focuses on understanding the risk perception of select ND stakeholder groups regarding produced water management and naturally occurring radioactive material. The software Qualtrics was used to create an online survey, collect data, and perform statistical analysis. The most important variables that seem to influence risk perception are the images and thoughts associated with produced water, level of knowledge about produced water handling and content, and knowing how to proceed in case of a spill of produced water. Overall, social risk perception could be in alignment with actual technical risk if availability of objective information is improved.

Abstract:
How do people interpret ambiguous and uncertain events? This study explores this question in the context of unconventional oil and gas development, or “fracking”, with implications for natural resource extraction generally. Drawing on the theories of social representations and framing, we test the hypothesis that legacies of natural resource extraction – conceptualized here as collective schemata of interpretation – shape perceptions and actions toward new forms of energy development. Based on an analysis of survey data from the “Twin Tiers” regions of New York and Pennsylvania (n = 590), we find that negatively perceived legacies of past resource dependence, net of other factors, lead to opposition and political behaviors related to unconventional oil and gas development. Our findings suggest that regional legacies of natural resource extraction act as a sense making tool, working to translate the ambiguous, novel phenomenon of unconventional oil and gas development into something understandable in light of past experiences.