Repository for Oil and Gas Energy Research (ROGER)

Abstract:
Anthropogenic noise is a pervasive pollutant that decreases environmental quality by disrupting a suite of behaviors vital to perception and communication. However, even within populations of noise-sensitive species, individuals still select breeding sites located within areas exposed to high noise levels, with largely unknown physiological and fitness consequences. We use a study system in the natural gas fields of northern New Mexico to test the prediction that exposure to noise causes glucocorticoid-signaling dysfunction and decreases fitness in a community of secondary cavity-nesting birds. In accordance with these predictions, and across all species, we find strong support for noise exposure decreasing baseline corticosterone in adults and nestlings and, conversely, increasing acute stressor-induced corticosterone in nestlings. We also document fitness consequences with increased noise in the form of reduced hatching success in the western bluebird (Sialia mexicana), the species most likely to nest in noisiest environments. Nestlings of all three species exhibited accelerated growth of both feathers and body size at intermediate noise amplitudes compared with lower or higher amplitudes. Our results are consistent with recent experimental laboratory studies and show that noise functions as a chronic, inescapable stressor. Anthropogenic noise likely impairs environmental risk perception by species relying on acoustic cues and ultimately leads to impacts on fitness. Our work, when taken together with recent efforts to document noise across the landscape, implies potential widespread, noise-induced chronic stress coupled with reduced fitness for many species reliant on acoustic cues.

Abstract:
Unconventional oil and gas (UOG) extraction, also known as hydraulic fracturing, is becoming more prevalent with the increasing use and demand for natural gas; however, the full extent of its environmental impacts is still unknown. Here we measured physicochemical properties and bacterial community composition of sediment samples taken from twenty-eight streams within the Marcellus Shale formation in northeastern Pennsylvania differentially impacted by hydraulic fracturing activities. Fourteen of the streams were classified as UOG+, and thirteen were classified as UOG- based on the presence of unconventional oil and gas extraction in their respective watersheds. One stream was located in a watershed that previously had unconventional oil and gas extraction activities but was recently abandoned. We utilized high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to infer differences in sediment aquatic bacterial community structure between UOG+ and UOG- streams, as well as correlate bacterial community structure to physicochemical water parameters. Although overall alpha and beta diversity differences were not observed, there were a plethora of significantly enriched operational taxonomic units (OTUs) within UOG+ and UOG- samples. Our biomarker analysis revealed many of the bacterial taxa enriched in UOG+ streams can live in saline conditions, such as Rubrobacteraceae. In addition, several bacterial taxa capable of hydrocarbon degradation were also enriched in UOG+ samples, including Oceanospirillaceae. Methanotrophic taxa, such as Methylococcales, were significantly enriched as well. Several taxa that were identified as enriched in these samples were enriched in samples taken from different streams in 2014; moreover, PLS-DA revealed clustering between streams from the different studies based on the presence of hydraulic fracturing along the second axis. This study revealed significant differences between bacterial assemblages within stream sediments of UOG+ and UOG- streams and identified several potential biomarkers for evaluating and monitoring the response of autochthonous bacterial communities to potential hydraulic fracturing impacts.

Abstract:
To date, most studies focusing on the effects of high volume hydraulic fracturing on freshwater systems have been at the small watershed scale (i.e. <130 km2). Here we review the findings from the small watershed studies and present a case study of a larger watershed, the South Fork Little Red River (SFLRR) watershed (127–193 km2). Hydraulic fracturing within the SFLRR watershed resulted in no detectable changes in physicochemical parameters or algal biomass. However, sensitive macroinvertebrate taxa densities were reduced downstream of hydraulic fracturing relative to upstream. Increased distance from the hydraulic fracturing, in-stream processing of physicochemical properties, and additional landscape disturbances, likely made it more difficult to assess the effects of hydraulic fracturing in most stream response variables at the larger watershed scale.

Abstract:
Natural gas development using hydraulic fracturing has many potential environmental impacts, but among the most certain is the land disturbance required to build the well pads and other infrastructure required to drill and extract the gas. We used the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to investigate how natural gas development could impact streamflow and sediment, total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorous (TP) loadings in the upper Delaware River Basin (DRB), a relatively undeveloped watershed of 7,950km(2) that lies above the Marcellus Shale formation. If gas development was permitted, our projections show the DRB could experience development of over 600 well pads to extract natural gas at build out, which, with supporting infrastructure (roads, gathering pipelines), could convert over 5,000ha from existing land uses in the study area. In subbasins with development activity we found sediment, TN, and TP yields could increase by an average of 15, 0.08, and 0.03kg/ha/yr, respectively (an increase of 2, 3, and 15%, respectively) for each one percent of subbasin land area converted into natural gas infrastructure. At the study area outlet on the Delaware River at Port Jervis, New York, we found increases in the annual average streamflow and sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus loads of up to 0.01, 0.2, 0.2, and 1%, respectively, for a rapid development year, and 0.08, 1.3, 2.0, and 11%, respectively, for the full development scenario. Editor's note: This paper is part of the featured series on SWAT Applications for Emerging Hydrologic and Water Quality Challenges. See the February 2017 issue for the introduction and background to the series.

Abstract:
Vegetation removal and soil disturbance from natural resource development, combined with invasive plant propagule pressure, can increase vulnerability to plant invasions. Unconventional oil and gas development produces surface disturbance by way of well pad, road, and pipeline construction, and increased traffic. Little is known about the resulting impacts on plant community assembly, including the spread of invasive plants. Our work was conducted in Pennsylvania forests that overlay the Marcellus and Utica shale formations to determine if invasive plants have spread to edge habitat created by unconventional gas development and to investigate factors associated with their presence. A piecewise structural equation model was used to determine the direct and indirect factors associated with invasive plant establishment on well pads. The model included the following measured or calculated variables: current propagule pressure on local access roads, the spatial extent of the pre-development road network (potential source of invasive propagules), the number of wells per pad (indicator of traffic density), and pad age. Sixty-one percent of the 127 well pads surveyed had at least one invasive plant species present. Invasive plant presence on well pads was positively correlated with local propagule pressure on access roads and indirectly with road density pre-development, the number of wells, and age of the well pad. The vast reserves of unconventional oil and gas are in the early stages of development in the US. Continued development of this underground resource must be paired with careful monitoring and management of surface ecological impacts, including the spread of invasive plants. Prioritizing invasive plant monitoring in unconventional oil and gas development areas with existing roads and multi-well pads could improve early detection and control of invasive plants.

Abstract:
A growing number of environmental investigations are now elucidating the pathways through which specific processes of unconventional oil and gas development can impact environmental quality. The preponderance of pertinent studies has focused on the analysis of groundwater resources, collectively revealing the potential subsurface impacts that can result from inadequate annular structure and poor well casing integrity. Robust atmospheric studies have attributed the emissions of rogue greenhouse gases and volatile organic compounds to mechanical inefficiencies commonly found in midstream production structures, such as gas flaring stations, condensate tanks, and pipelines. However, the interplay between unconventional oil and gas development activities and soil quality has not received as much attention. Here, we present a study of soils near production infrastructure with verified emissions of volatile contaminants. These findings provide an initial indication of the interactions between atmospheric BTEX contamination events and the accumulation of those contaminants in soil. Additionally, these efforts include an initial exploration of some in situ remediation approaches for the mitigation of BTEX soil contamination.

Abstract:
Water resources development and landscape alteration exert marked impacts on water-cycle dynamics, including areas subjected to hydraulic fracturing (HF) for exploitation of unconventional oil and gas resources found in shale or tight sandstones. Here we apply a conceptual framework for linking baseflow analysis to changes in water demands from different sectors (e.g. oil/gas extraction, irrigation, and municipal consumption) and climatic variability in the semiarid Eagle Ford play in Texas, USA. We hypothesize that, in water-limited regions, baseflow (Qb) changes are partly due (along with climate variability) to groundwater abstraction. For a more realistic assessment, the analysis was conducted in two different sets of unregulated catchments, located outside and inside the Eagle Ford play. Three periods were considered in the analysis related to HF activities: pre-development (1980-2000), moderate (2001-2008) and intensive (2009-2015) periods. Results indicate that in the Eagle Ford play region, temporal changes in baseflow cannot be directly related to the increase in hydraulic fracturing. Instead, substantial baseflow declines during the intensive period of hydraulic fracturing represent the aggregated effects from the combination of: (1) a historical exceptional drought during 2011-2012; (2) increased groundwater-based irrigation; and (3) an intensive hydraulic fracturing activity. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Abstract:
We measured fluxes of methane, non-methane hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide from natural gas well pad soils and from nearby undisturbed soils in eastern Utah. Methane fluxes varied from less than zero to more than 38 g m-2 h-1. Fluxes from well pad soils were almost always greater than from undisturbed soils. Fluxes were greater from locations with higher concentrations of total combustible gas in soil and were inversely correlated with distance from well heads. Several lines of evidence show that the majority of emission fluxes (about 70%) were primarily due to subsurface sources of raw gas that migrated to the atmosphere, with the remainder likely caused primarily by re-emission of spilled liquid hydrocarbons. Total hydrocarbon fluxes during summer were only 39 (16, 97)% as high as during winter, likely because soil bacteria consumed the majority of hydrocarbons during summer months. We estimate that natural gas well pad soils account for 4.6×10-4 (1.6×10-4, 1.6×10-3)% of total emissions of hydrocarbons from the oil and gas industry in Utah’s Uinta Basin. Our undisturbed soil flux measurements were not adequate to quantify rates of natural hydrocarbon seepage in the Uinta Basin.

Abstract:
Large, continuous forest provides critical habitat for some species of forest dependent wildlife. The rapid expansion of shale gas development within the northern Appalachians results in direct loss of such habitat at well sites, pipelines, and access roads; however the resulting habitat fragmentation surrounding such areas may be of greater importance. Previous research has suggested that infrastructure supporting gas development is the driver for habitat loss, but knowledge of what specific infrastructure affects habitat is limited by a lack of spatial tracking of infrastructure development in different land uses. We used high-resolution aerial imagery, land cover data, and well point data to quantify shale gas development across four time periods (2010, 2012, 2014, 2016), including: the number of wells permitted, drilled, and producing gas (a measure of pipeline development); land use change; and forest fragmentation on both private and public land. As of April 2016, the majority of shale gas development was located on private land (74% of constructed well pads); however, the number of wells drilled per pad was lower on private compared to public land (3.5 and 5.4, respectively). Loss of core forest was more than double on private than public land (4.3 and 2.0%, respectively), which likely results from better management practices implemented on public land. Pipelines were by far the largest contributor to the fragmentation of core forest due to shale gas development. Forecasting future land use change resulting from gas development suggests that the greatest loss of core forest will occur with pads constructed farthest from pre-existing pipelines (new pipelines must be built to connect pads) and in areas with greater amounts of core forest. To reduce future fragmentation, our results suggest new pads should be placed near pre-existing pipelines and methods to consolidate pipelines with other infrastructure should be used. Without these mitigation practices, we will continue to lose core forest as a result of new pipelines and infrastructure particularly on private land.

Abstract:
This study aims to investigate macroinvertebrate assemblage structure and composition across the three major waterbody types (temporary rivers, depression wetlands and semi-permanent dams) of the Eastern Cape Karoo, and to identify important environmental and spatial correlates of macroinvertebrate assemblage composition in the region. A total of 33 waterbodies (9 dams, 13 depression wetlands and 11 rivers) were sampled. Altogether, 91 taxa were recorded in November 2014 and 82 in April 2015. Twenty-seven taxa were common to all three waterbody types (across both sampling occasions), with 17 of these observed in November and 19 in April. The ANOSIM tests revealed significant differences in assemblage composition between the depression wetlands and rivers for both sampling occasions, but dams did not differ from the other waterbody types. SIMPER analyses indicated that the notonectid Anisops varia and the corixid Micronecta scutellaris were abundant across all three waterbody types during both sampling occasions. The mayfly Cloeon africanum and the damselfly Pseudagrion sp. were abundant in river habitats during both sampling occasions, while the gastropod mollusc Bulinus tropicus and the copepod Lovenula falcifera best characterised depression wetlands on both occasions. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination highlighted a clear separation of assemblages between November and April, while distance-based Redundancy Analysis revealed that conductivity, altitude, turbidity and pH were the most important variables explaining the variation in macroinvertebrate assemblage patterns. These results provide baseline information which is important for future biological monitoring of impacts associated with hydraulic fracturing activities and climatic changes in the region.

Abstract:
The rapid expansion of unconventional oil and gas development in the US has been controversial because of numerous environmental and social issues, including the conversion, fragmentation, and degradation of natural habitats. Here we describe land-use impacts and ecosystem services costs of recent energy development in the eight major unconventional oil and gas production regions of the US. From 2004 to 2015, more than 200,000 hectares of land were developed or modified. By 2015, the estimated annual ecosystem services costs of this habitat change had risen to US$272 million, which resulted in a cumulative total of almost US$1.4 billion. These costs were concentrated in deciduous forests and grasslands/pastures. Depending on future well-drilling rates, cumulative ecosystem services costs projected to the year 2040 range from US$9.4 billion to US$31.9 billion. These environmental and economic impacts should be considered when governments perform cost-benefit analyses and create regulatory oversight.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing fluid are complex mixtures containing high concentrations of salts (up to 330,000 ppm), organic, and metal contaminants. However, little data exist on the potential mechanisms of toxicity of these flowback and produced wastewaters (FPW) on aquatic biota.

Abstract:
As the extent and intensity of energy development in North America increases, so do disturbances to wildlife and the habitats they rely upon. Impacts to mule deer are of particular concern because some of the largest gas fields in the USA overlap critical winter ranges. Short-term studies of two to three years have shown that mule deer and other ungulates avoid energy infrastructure, however, there remains a common perception that ungulates habituate to energy development and thus, the potential for a demographic effect is low. We used telemetry data from 187 individual deer across a 17-year period, including two years pre-development and 15 years during development, to determine whether mule deer habituated to natural gas development and if their response to disturbance varied with winter severity. Concurrently, we measured abundance of mule deer to indirectly link behavior with demography. Mule deer consistently avoided energy infrastructure through the 15-year period of development and used habitats that were an average of 913 m further from well pads compared with pre-development patterns of habitat use. Even during the last three years of study, when most wells were in production and reclamation efforts underway, mule deer remained > 1 km away from well pads. The magnitude of avoidance behavior, however, was mediated by winter severity, where aversion to well pads decreased as winter severity increased. Mule deer abundance declined by 36% during the development period, despite aggressive on-site mitigation efforts (e.g., directional drilling and liquid gathering systems) and a 45% reduction in deer harvest. Our results indicate behavioral effects of energy development on mule deer are long-term and may affect population abundance by displacing animals and thereby, functionally reducing the amount of available habitat. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Abstract:
Grassland songbird populations across North America have experienced dramatic population declines due to habitat loss and degradation. In Canada, energy development continues to fragment and disturb prairie habitat, but effects of oil and gas development on reproductive success of songbirds in North American mixed-grass prairies remains largely unknown. From 2010–2012, in southeastern Alberta, Canada, we monitored 257 nests of two ground-nesting grassland songbird species, Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) and chestnut-collared longspur (Calcarius ornatus). Nest locations varied with proximity to and density of conventional shallow gas well structures and associated roads in forty-two 258-ha mixed-grass prairie sites. We estimated the probabilities of nest success and clutch size relative to gas well structures and roads. There was little effect of distance to or density of gas well structure on nest success; however, Savannah sparrow experienced lower nest success near roads. Clutch sizes were lower near gas well structures and cattle water sources. Minimizing habitat disturbance surrounding gas well structures, and reducing abundance of roads and trails, would help minimize impacts on reproductive success for some grassland songbirds.

Abstract:
: Changes in drilling practices in the oil and gas industry have opened new regions to energy development across much of the United States, including areas that have large holdings of public lands of high conservation value. Using satellite images and GIS techniques, we measured public land use changes in the Fayetteville Shale, a region in north-central Arkansas that has undergone rapid natural gas development in the last 10 years. These public lands showed less development of gas infrastructure compared to the larger gas field, which is mostly privately owned. Gas activities led to less natural forest loss and edge habitat creation in public lands compared to private lands. However, one large public land property (Gulf Mountain Wildlife Management Area) showed much more development compared to the overall gas field (about 20% higher). This disparity was most likely due to differences in regulation and controversial leases that were allowed for this wildlife management area early in the Fayetteville Shale development. These results show that natural gas development can occur around public lands of high conservation value without large land use and habitat impacts, but we suggest such an outcome relies upon effective management practices and wise decision-making by public officials. In the case of Gulf Mountain Wildlife Management Area, strategic well-pad and pipeline placement could have substantially reduced impact to natural areas.

Abstract:
During the last quarter-century, global demand for energy has increased by more than 60%, and a similar increase is anticipated to occur by 2030 (Raymond, Deming, & Nichols, 2007). In the U.S., oil and gas development is projected to continue across western states within sage-grouse habitat. Greater sage-grouse, recently a candidate species for protection under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), have well documented negative responses to oil and gas disturbance. In this study, we create spatially-explicit oil and gas future development scenarios, baseline and high, and link them to sage-grouse population and habitat maps to quantify future exposure risk within Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (WAFWA) sage-grouse management zones (MZ) I and II. We then analyze recent land use decisions from the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) along with enacted policy from the State of Wyoming to estimate how these management actions might minimize the exposure risk of sage-grouse to oil and gas development into the future. Our results show that BLM and Wyoming conservation plans could reduce the exposure of sage-grouse to oil and gas development from 15-27% to 11–17% (31–37% reduction) in MZ I and from 15-27% to 5–9% (64–68% reduction) in MZ II. Our estimates of exposure to future oil and gas development, and conservation measures designed to ameliorate those threats, represent the upper and lower extents of potential impacts within scenarios. Our work demonstrates how spatial modeling and GIS visualization can be used by managers to assess likely outcomes of conservation decisions.

Abstract:
Few studies have examined the relationship between natural gas development and surface water quality using well pad density (the number of well pads/km2) as an indicator of potential impacts to aquatic life, specifically fish, salamander, and crayfish assemblages. We tested the hypothesis that animal assemblages, assessed by densities of ecologically important species, will differ among groups of watersheds with different well pad densities. In 2011, sites were sampled in Pennsylvania between July 13 and September 14 (N = 28; 10 = no well pads, 8 = low density, 10 = moderate density). We did not detect evidence of impact on fish, salamander, and crayfish assemblages. It should be noted that this study primarily assessed infrastructure-related impacts. Watersheds under investigations in this study area included no stream withdrawals for drilling and relatively low well pad density (≤0.541 well pads/km2), which reduces the amount of roads and pipeline as well as sediment runoff reaching the stream from this and other infrastructure during development. In addition, setback and landscape limitations also kept well pads relatively far from surface waters, and these watersheds remained highly forested after development because most were in state forests. Therefore, these findings represent the least intrusive scenario for impacts to aquatic communities while extracting natural gas.

Abstract:
The recent expansion of oil and gas extraction activity on the Great Plains, USA, has occurred with little understanding of potential effects of the activity on wildlife populations. We monitored the demography of breeding ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) in 2 areas of western North Dakota, USA, subject to different intensities of energy extraction. Northwestern North Dakota is the heart of the Bakken Shale, where oil and gas extraction activity has been intense (e.g., 1,273 new oil wells from 2011–2013 in our high-intensity study area) in recent years. In contrast, such activity has occurred at a relatively low intensity (e.g., 18 new oil wells from 2011–2013 in our low-intensity study area) in southwestern North Dakota. Ferruginous hawks in the 2 areas had similar densities of nesting pairs, with comparable fledging success. However, between-year re-use of nest sites was significantly lower in the area with high-intensity energy extraction (1 of 8) than the area of low-intensity (8 of 10); also, re-use of nests in the high-intensity area was considerably lower than reported from other parts of the range of the species. Thus, although high-intensity energy extraction activity had no apparent impact on immediate reproductive success of ferruginous hawks, long-term population declines could be expected in our northern study area given the unusually low rate of nest-site re-use. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Abstract:
The effects of hydraulic fracturing (HF) flowback and produced water (HF-FPW), a complex saline mixture of injected HF fluids and deep formation water that return to the surface, was examined in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Exposure to HF-FPWs resulted in significant induction of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity in both liver and gill tissues. Increased lipid peroxidation via oxidative stress was also detected by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay. The mRNA expressions of a battery of genes related to biotransformation, oxidative stress, and endocrine disruption were also measured using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (Q-RT-PCR). The increased expression of cyp1a (2.49 ± 0.28-fold), udpgt (2.01 ± 0.31-fold), sod (1.67 ± 0.09-fold), and gpx (1.58 ± 0.10-fold) in raw sample exposure group (7.5%) indicated elevated metabolic enzyme activity, likely through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway, and generation of reactive oxygen species. In addition, the elevated vtg and era2 expression demonstrated endocrine disrupting potential exerted by HF-FPW in rainbow trout. The overall results suggested HF-FPW could cause significant adverse effects on fish, and the organic contents might play the major role in its toxicity. Future studies are needed to help fully determine the toxic mechanism(s) of HF-FPW on freshwater fish, and aid in establishing monitoring, treatment, and remediation protocols for HF-FPW.

Abstract:
Unconventional shale gas activity has presented both challenges and opportunities for conservation. The unique nature of horizontal drilling used in shale exploration allows for a reduction in the footprint of shale-related activity in the landscape. However, existing policies regulating shale activity across the Northeast, particularly in Pennsylvania, largely miss an opportunity to encourage such consolidation, which would result in substantial ecosystem conservation. Using satellite land cover data for the years 2006 and 2011 combined with data on shale drilling activity in Pennsylvania, we show that a consolidation of wells to underutilized well pads would have resulted in a forest conservation gain of over 112,838 acres between 2006 and 2015. While likely an overestimate, this suggests that small changes in policy such as moving toward a quantity-based market mechanism to regulate the number of well pads would result in substantial conservation gains.

Abstract:
Quantitative flow–ecology relationships are needed to evaluate how water withdrawals for unconventional natural gas development may impact aquatic ecosystems. Addressing this need, we studied current patterns of hydrologic alteration in the Marcellus Shale region and related the estimated flow alteration to fish community measures. We then used these empirical flow–ecology relationships to evaluate alternative surface water withdrawals and environmental flow rules. Reduced high-flow magnitude, dampened rates of change, and increased low-flow magnitudes were apparent regionally, but changes in many of the flow metrics likely to be sensitive to withdrawals also showed substantial regional variation. Fish community measures were significantly related to flow alteration, including declines in species richness with diminished annual runoff, winter low-flow, and summer median-flow. In addition, the relative abundance of intolerant taxa decreased with reduced winter high-flow and increased flow constancy, while fluvial specialist species decreased with reduced winter and annual flows. Stream size strongly mediated both the impact of withdrawal scenarios and the protection afforded by environmental flow standards. Under the most intense withdrawal scenario, 75% of reference headwaters and creeks (drainage areas <99 km2) experienced at least 78% reduction in summer flow, whereas little change was predicted for larger rivers. Moreover, the least intense withdrawal scenario still reduced summer flows by at least 21% for 50% of headwaters and creeks. The observed 90th quantile flow–ecology relationships indicate that such alteration could reduce species richness by 23% or more. Seasonally varying environmental flow standards and high fixed minimum flows protected the most streams from hydrologic alteration, but common minimum flow standards left numerous locations vulnerable to substantial flow alteration. This study clarifies how additional water demands in the region may adversely affect freshwater biological integrity. The results make clear that policies to limit or prevent water withdrawals from smaller streams can reduce the risk of ecosystem impairment.

Abstract:
Birds breeding in heterogeneous landscapes select nest sites by cueing in on a variety of factors from landscape features and social information to the presence of natural enemies. We focus on determining the relative impact of anthropogenic noise on nest site occupancy, compared to amount of forest cover, which is known to strongly influence the selection process. We examine chronic, industrial noise from natural gas wells directly measured at the nest box as well as site-averaged noise, using a well-established field experimental system in northwestern New Mexico. We hypothesized that high levels of noise, both at the nest site and in the environment, would decrease nest box occupancy. We set up nest boxes using a geospatially paired control and experimental site design and analyzed four years of occupancy data from four secondary cavity-nesting birds common to the Colorado Plateau. We found different effects of noise and landscape features depending on species, with strong effects of noise observed in breeding habitat selection of Myiarchus cinerascens, the Ash-throated Flycatcher, and Sialia currucoides, the Mountain Bluebird. In contrast, the amount of forest cover less frequently explained habitat selection for those species or had a smaller standardized effect than the acoustic environment. Although forest cover characterization and management is commonly employed by natural resource managers, our results show that characterizing and managing the acoustic environment should be an important tool in protected area management.

Abstract:
The development of unconventional oil and gas (UOG) involves infrastructure development (well pads, roads and pipelines), well drilling and stimulation (hydraulic fracturing), and production; all of which have the potential to affect stream ecosystems. Here, we developed a fine-scaled (1:24,000) catchment-level disturbance intensity index (DII) that included 17 measures of UOG capturing all steps in the development process (infrastructure, water withdrawals, probabilistic spills) that could affect headwater streams (< 200 km2 in upstream catchment) in the Upper Susquehanna River Basin in Pennsylvania, U.S.A. The DII ranged from 0 (no UOG disturbance) to 100 (the catchment with the highest UOG disturbance in the study area) and it was most sensitive to removal of pipeline cover, road cover and well pad cover metrics. We related this DII to three measures of high quality streams: Pennsylvania State Exceptional Value (EV) streams, Class A brook trout streams and Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture brook trout patches. Overall only 3.8% of all catchments and 2.7% of EV stream length, 1.9% of Class A streams and 1.2% of patches were classified as having medium to high level DII scores (> 50). Well density, often used as a proxy for development, only correlated strongly with well pad coverage and produced materials, and therefore may miss potential effects associated with roads and pipelines, water withdrawals and spills. When analyzed with a future development scenario, 91.1% of EV stream length, 68.7% of Class A streams and 80.0% of patches were in catchments with a moderate to high probability of development. Our method incorporated the cumulative effects of UOG on streams and can be used to identify catchments and reaches at risk to existing stressors or future development.

Abstract:
Whilst fracking is used globally, impact studies on wildlife are limited. The semi-arid Karoo, South Africa, a large ecosystem with a high degree of endemism, is targeted for fracking. We investigated how adult leopard tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis) use their environment by determining individual and seasonal variation in home range and effects of weather factors on these pre-fracking. Data were obtained from Global Positioning System (GPS) transmitters placed on leopard tortoises (n = 11) on private livestock farms near Beaufort West, South Africa for a year. Kernel density estimation (KDE) was used to estimate home range. Individuals had a mean (±SE) home range of 121.86 ± 28.12 ha, (range 40.53–258.52 ha) with a core area of 76.55 ± 17.33 ha (range 21.22–83.89 ha). No difference was found between annual male and female home ranges. Two telemetered individuals were excluded from analysis because they exhibited apparent nomadic behaviour. Several individuals did not visit permanent water sources, possibly suggesting that dietary water intake was sufficient. Generalised Linear Mixed Models were used to explain monthly home range estimates (95% KDEhref) in regards to biologically significant predictor variables. A single top model (ΔAICc < 2) was produced, indicating importance of individual variability (sex, body mass) and weather (temperature, rainfall) variables. Our results provide baseline data pre-fracking in the region, and as such, should be repeated following commencement of fracking.

Abstract:
Unconventional natural gas (UNG) extraction (fracking) is ongoing in 29 North American shale basins (20 states), with ~6000 wells found within the Fayetteville shale (north-central Arkansas). If the chemical signature of fracking is detectable in streams, it can be employed to bookmark potential impacts. We evaluated benthic biofilm community composition as a proxy for stream chemistry so as to segregate anthropogenic signatures in eight Arkansas River catchments. In doing so, we tested the hypothesis that fracking characteristics in study streams are statistically distinguishable from those produced by agriculture or urbanization.

Abstract:
Development from extracting oil and gas resources can have unintended effects on multiple ecosystem functions, with cascading effects on wildlife, ecosystem services, and local economies. Big-game hunting opportunities may be closely related to these effects, but empirical analyses of impacts of energy development on hunting are limited. We examined the influence of oil and gas development density on harvest efficiency, or harvest per unit of hunter effort, within all hunt areas in Wyoming, USA, from 2008 to 2014 for 3 big-game species: elk (Cervus canadensis), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). Using harvest/hunter day as the response variable, we compared linear mixed-effects models for each species that included total well density (i.e., all wells constructed up to the year of record), active well density (i.e., only those wells currently producing oil or gas in that year), or neither as a predictor variable. We used well densities as indicators of development in the absence of data specifying the locations of other oil and gas infrastructure (e.g., roads, well pads). Models also accounted for the fixed effects of road density, hunter density, proportion of the area that is public land with unrestricted hunter access, proportion of the area that is forested, year of observation, and random effects of variation among hunt areas nested within associated game herd units. Presence of oil and gas wells had a positive influence on harvest efficiency for elk and mule deer. Although there was no overall effect to pronghorn, there was a negative influence of wells on juvenile pronghorn harvest efficiency. Changes in harvest efficiency due to expanding oil and gas development could alter the time spent hunting by hunters and their chances of harvesting an animal. This could have subsequent impacts on hunter satisfaction, game populations, and economic revenue generated from recreational hunters. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Abstract:
Western North America's grasslands have undergone a rapid expansion of conventional oil and natural gas development, the effects of which are largely unknown for nesting songbirds. Understanding mechanisms that drive ecological responses to infrastructure is essential for our ability to identify and minimize potential negative effects on wildlife. Our study sought to distinguish between effects driven by physical structures and those driven by associated anthropogenic noise. Further, we evaluated whether some structure types have smaller ecological footprints than others. We monitored 747 grassland songbird nests, of five species, in Alberta's mixed-grass prairie to determine if, and why, the presence of infrastructure affects nesting success. Nesting success was significantly lower at infrastructure sites relative to controls for both Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) and vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus), as well as at screwpump relative to pumpjack oil wells. There was no correlation between nesting success and noise intensity, and nesting success was not significantly lower near roads. However, nesting success was lower at electric grid-powered sites relative to generator-powered sites, suggesting that power distribution lines may benefit some nest predators. Vesper sparrow nest density increased with proximity to oil wells and compressor stations, so it is possible that these sites are ecological traps for this species. Management strategies focusing only on reduction of anthropogenic noise and disturbance may be ineffectual for conservation of grassland songbirds. Managers should also seek to reduce the physical footprint of infrastructure on the landscape, replace screwpumps with pumpjacks, and replace grid powered with generator-powered wells.

Abstract:
Wildlife is exposed to increasing anthropogenic disturbances related to shale oil and gas extraction in response to rising worldwide demands. As these disturbances increase in intensity and occurrence across the landscape, understanding their impacts is essential for management. On Anticosti Island (Québec, Canada), we equipped six white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus with GPS collars taking hourly locations. We then designed a playback experiment by simulating constant drilling noise emitted by generators to which half of the collared deer were exposed for a three-week period. Deer tolerated noise levels up to 70 dB(C). However, the number of locations recorded in areas where the noise was above 70 dB(C) was on average 73% (SE ± 18%) lower than before the disturbance, which suggests that deer experienced fine scale functional habitat loss. This loss of habitat occurred up to 200 m from the noise source. The size of home ranges and movement rates did not appear to be affected by the noise disturbance. In addition, during the experiment, deer were able to relocate in areas of their home range where food availability was similar to that of sites used before the disturbance. These results show that drilling noise can affect the habitat use of white-tailed deer. However, future research is needed to better understand the cumulative impacts of shale mining on large mammals, as this study isolated only one of the many disturbances present near mining sites and for a limited period.

Abstract:
Unconventional natural gas development and hydraulic fracturing practices (fracking) are increasing worldwide due to global energy demands. Research has only recently begun to assess fracking impacts to surrounding environments, and very little research is aimed at determining effects on aquatic biodiversity and contaminant biomagnification. Twenty-seven remotely-located streams in Pennsylvania’s Marcellus Shale basin were sampled during June and July of 2012 and 2013. At each stream, stream physiochemical properties, trophic biodiversity, and structure and mercury levels were assessed. We used δ15N, δ13C, and methyl mercury to determine whether changes in methyl mercury biomagnification were related to the fracking occurring within the streams’ watersheds. While we observed no difference in rates of biomagnificaion related to within-watershed fracking activities, we did observe elevated methyl mercury concentrations that were influenced by decreased stream pH, elevated dissolved stream water Hg values, decreased macroinvertebrate Index for Biotic Integrity scores, and lower Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera macroinvertebrate richness at stream sites where fracking had occurred within their watershed. We documented the loss of scrapers from streams with the highest well densities, and no fish or no fish diversity at streams with documented frackwater fluid spills. Our results suggest fracking has the potential to alter aquatic biodiversity and methyl mercury concentrations at the base of food webs.

Abstract:
A survey of the large branchiopod fauna of the Eastern Cape Karoo region of South Africa was undertaken to provide baseline biodiversity information in light of impending shale gas development activities in the region. Twenty-two waterbodies, including nine dams and thirteen natural depression wetlands, were sampled during November 2014 and April 2015. A total of 13 species belonging to four orders were collected, comprising five anostracans, one notostracan, six spinicaudatans and one laevicaudatan. Cyzicus australis was most common, occurring in 46% of the waterbodies. Species co-occurred in 87% of the waterbodies, with a maximum number of six species recorded from the same waterbody. Our new distribution records for Lynceus truncatus, Streptocephalus spinicaudatus and Streptocephalus indistinctus represent substantial expansions of the previously known ranges for these species. Tarkastad is now the westernmost record for Streptocephalus spinicaudatus, while Jansenville now constitutes the southernmost record for Streptocephalus indistinctus. Large branchiopod distribution data from previous Eastern Cape records were combined with our current data, demonstrating that a total of 23 large branchiopod species have been recorded from the region to date. As the Karoo is one of the few major shale basins in the world where the natural baseline is still largely intact, this survey forms a basis for future reference and surface water quality monitoring during the process of shale gas exploration/extraction.

Abstract:
The Appalachian shale play, which includes the Marcellus shale formation, is an important source of natural gas and underlies much of the remaining large areas of extensive contiguous forest within the eastern United States, areas that are important breeding sites for forest songbirds. Shale gas development in contiguous forest creates large disturbances and causes habitat fragmentation; the landscape matrix remains characterized by stands of mature forest. We assessed the effects of shale gas development on counts of passerines and near- passerine birds within an extensively forested landscape. We surveyed birds within 2 broad forest types (northern hardwood and mixed oak) at increasing distances from 49 shale gas pads established within contiguous forest habitat. We compared counts of individual species and 3 vegetation-association groups (forest interior, synanthropic, and early successional) in relation to distance from a pad edge, and we compared community composition with distance from a pad edge. Counts of individuals and species within the forest interior group increased with increasing distance from a pad edge; counts of individuals were approximately 4 times greater at 250 m than at 0 m and 3 times greater than at 50 m. Twelve of 15 species in the forest interior group increased with increasing distance from a pad edge with no species showing a declining trend. In contrast, counts of synanthropic (i.e., human-associated) individuals and species were greatest at the pad edge and declined with distance to a pad edge. Counts of individuals at 250 m were 92% lower than at 0 m, and counts for 4 of the 5 individual species declined with increasing distance from a pad edge. Counts of individuals and species within the early successional habitat group were greater in oak (Quercus spp.) than in northern hardwood forests, and the response to a pad edge differed among species and between the 2 forest types. In northern hardwood stands, counts were greatest near the pad edge, whereas counts in oak stands showed no trend with distance to a pad edge. Overall, the combined avian community differed with distance from a pad edge. Our results suggest that synanthropic species, which are rare in core forest, are able to rapidly exploit new development-associated habitat. Counts of forest interior specialists declined, suggesting the habitat is becoming less suitable for this group. Our results are an early indication that shale gas development in core forest can have negative consequences for forest songbird communities as synanthropic species, which tend to be habitat generalists with wide geographic ranges, replace forest specialists. Long-term effects will depend on the scale and extent of shale gas development, emphasizing the need for proactive planning to minimize negative effects. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Abstract:
1.Environmental impact assessments are important tools for predicting the consequences of development and changes in land use. These assessments generally use a small subset of total biodiversity – typically rare and threatened species and habitats – as indicators of ecological status. However, these indicators do not necessarily reflect changes in the many more widespread (but increasingly threatened) species, which are important for ecosystem functions. In addition, assessment of threatened species through field surveys is time-consuming and expensive and, therefore, only possible at small spatial scales. In contrast, planning changes in land use over large spatial scales (e.g. national infrastructure projects) require assessment and prioritisation of biodiversity over large spatial extents. 2.Here, we provide a method for the assessment of biodiversity, which takes account of species diversity across larger spatial scales, based on occurrence records from 5553 species across 11 taxonomic groups. We compare the efficacy of the biodiversity-based indicator we developed against one based on threatened species only and then use it to consider spatial and temporal patterns in ecological status across Great Britain. Finally, we develop a case study to investigate biodiversity status in regions proposed for shale gas extraction in Great Britain. 3.Our results show a strong relationship between the ecological status of areas defined by all biodiversity versus only threatened species, although they also demonstrate that significant exceptions do exist where threatened species do not always accurately indicate the ecological status of wider biodiversity. 4.Spatial and temporal analyses show large variation in ecological status across Great Britain both within the area made available for shale gas licensing, and within individual environmental zones. In total, however, 63% of hectads across Britain have suffered a net reduction in our biodiversity-based indicator since 1970. 5.Synthesis and applications. We provide a method and develop a biodiversity-based indicator for the assessment and prioritisation of biodiversity at large spatial scales. We highlight the potential applications of this approach for the prioritisation of areas that would benefit from conservation and restoration. We also emphasise the danger of insufficient consideration of more widespread species and not just rare and threatened species and habitats as indicators of ecological status when prioritising large-scale national infrastructure projects. Our method should be a useful tool to complement existing environmental impact assessment methods. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Abstract:
In the last decade, unconventional drilling for natural gas from the Marcellus-Utica shale has increased exponentially in the central Appalachians. This heavily forested region contains important breeding habitat for many neotropical migratory songbirds, including several species of conservation concern. Our goal was to examine effects of unconventional gas development on forest habitat and breeding songbirds at a predominantly forested site from 2008 to 2015. Construction of gas well pads and infrastructure (e.g., roads, pipelines) contributed to an overall 4.5% loss in forest cover at the site, a 12.4% loss in core forest, and a 51.7% increase in forest edge density. We evaluated the relationship between land-cover metrics and species richness within three avian guilds: forest-interior, early-successional, and synanthropic, in addition to abundances of 21 focal species. Land-cover impacts were evaluated at two spatial extents: a point-level within 100-m and 500-m buffers of each avian survey station, and a landscape-level across the study area (4326 ha). Although we observed variability in species-specific responses, we found distinct trends in long-term response among the three avian guilds. Forest-interior guild richness declined at all points across the site and at points impacted within 100 m by shale gas but did not change at unimpacted points. Early-successional and synanthropic guild richness increased at all points and at impacted points. Our results suggest that shale gas development has the potential to fragment regional forests and alter avian communities, and that efforts to minimize new development in core forests will reduce negative impacts to forest dependent species.

Abstract:
Because shale gas development is occurring over large landscapes and consequently is affecting many headwater streams, an understanding of its effects on headwater-stream faunal communities is needed. We examined effects of shale gas development (well pads and associated infrastructure) on Louisiana waterthrush Parkesia motacilla and benthic macroinvertebrate communities in 12 West Virginia headwater streams in 2011. Streams were classed as impacted (n = 6) or unimpacted (n = 6) by shale gas development. We quantified waterthrush demography (nest success, clutch size, number of fledglings, territory density), a waterthrush Habitat Suitability Index, a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol habitat index, and benthic macroinvertebrate metrics including a genus-level stream-quality index for each stream. We compared each benthic metric between impacted and unimpacted streams with a Student's t-test that incorporated adjustments for normalizing data. Impacted streams had lower genus-level stream-quality index scores; lower overall and Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera richness; fewer intolerant taxa, more tolerant taxa, and greater density of 0–3-mm individuals (P ≤ 0.10). We then used Pearson correlation to relate waterthrush metrics to benthic metrics across the 12 streams. Territory density (no. of territories/km of stream) was greater on streams with higher genus-level stream-quality index scores; greater density of all taxa and Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera taxa; and greater biomass. Clutch size was greater on streams with higher genus-level stream-quality index scores. Nest survival analyses (n = 43 nests) completed with Program MARK suggested minimal influence of benthic metrics compared with nest stage and Habitat Suitability Index score. Although our study spanned only one season, our results suggest that shale gas development affected waterthrush and benthic communities in the headwater streams we studied. Thus, these ecological effects of shale gas development warrant closer examination.

Abstract:
Grassland and shrubland birds are declining globally due in part to anthropogenic habitat modification. Because population performance of these species is also influenced by non-anthropogenic factors, it is important to incorporate all relevant ecological drivers into demographic models. We used design-based sampling and occupancy models to test relationships of environmental factors that influence raptor demographics with re-occupancy of breeding territories by ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) across Wyoming, USA, 2011-2013. We also tested correlations of territory re-occupancy with oil and gas infrastructure-a leading cause of habitat modification throughout the range of this species of conservation concern. Probability of re-occupancy was not related to any covariates we investigated in 2011, had a strong negative relationship with cover of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) in 2012, was slightly higher for territories with artificial platforms than other nest substrates in 2013, and had a positive relationship with abundance of ground squirrels (Urocitellus spp.) that was strong in 2012 and weak in 2013. Associations with roads were weak and varied by year, road-type, and scale: in 2012, re-occupancy probability had a weak positive correlation with density of roads not associated with oil and gas fields at the territory-scale; however, in 2013 re-occupancy had a very weak negative correlation with density of oil and gas field roads near nest sites (≤500 m). Although our results indicate re-occupancy of breeding territories by ferruginous hawks was compatible with densities of anthropogenic infrastructure in our study area, the lack of relationships between oil and gas well density and territory re-occupancy may have occurred because pre-treatment data were unavailable. We used probabilistic sampling at a broad spatial extent, methods to account for imperfect detection, and conducted extensive prey sampling; nonetheless, future research using before-after-control-impact designs is needed to fully assess impacts of oil and gas development on ferruginous hawks.

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) poses significant threats to freshwater resources and stream ecosystems. Little research exists to quantify the ecological impact and in Pennsylvania alone over 10,000 wells have been permitted. This study aimed to determine if hydraulic fracturing is having any impacts on stream ecosystem health by measuring stream pH and temperature, macroinvertebrate index of biological integrity (IBI), and the gill morphology of individuals in the Hydropsychidae Diplectrona taxa. Six streams in northwestern Pennsylvania were selected as study sites (three with fracking occurring in their watershed and three without fracking). IBI scores were significantly higher at non-fracked sites and were also correlated with stream pH. Macroinvertebrate gill width did not vary between fracked and non-fracked sites but was correlated with percent hydric soils, suggesting that hydric soils may be a good long-term indicator of stream dissolved oxygen. While our results did not indicate differences in Hydropsychidae Diplectrona gill widths between fracked and non-fracked sites, we did observe that fracked sites had more acidic stream water and lower IBI scores. These results indicate the need for further study to assess the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on stream ecosystems.

Abstract:
Unconventionally-produced crude oils, i.e., Bakken oil and bitumen diluted for transport and known as dilbit, have become prominent components of the North American petroleum industry. Spills of these oils have occurred during transport from production areas to refineries via pipeline, rail, and barge. Some of their physical and chemical properties are distinct and present new challenges in mitigating spill impacts on people and the environment. This paper describes the adaptation of a qualitative risk assessment process to improve spill preparedness and response decisions for these oils when transported in an estuarine area. The application of this collaborative, interdisciplinary process drew upon a literature review, the local knowledge and experience of a broad set of decision makers, practitioners, and technical experts who developed consensus-based recommendations aimed at improving response to spills of these oils. Two emphasized components of this consensus ecological risk assessment (CERA) concerned risks: (1) to human health and safety and (2) from spilled oil and the associated response actions on endangered species. Participants in the process defined levels of concern associated with Bakken and dilbit oils relative to a set of response actions in freshwater, brackish and saltwater habitats and on resources at risk.

Abstract:
The state of Pennsylvania has a long history of oil and gas extraction. In recent years with advances in technology such as hydraulic fracturing, hydrocarbon sources that were not profitable in the past are now being exploited. Here, we present an assessment of the cumulative impact of oil and gas extraction activities on the forests of 35 counties in Pennsylvania and their intersecting sub-watersheds between 2004 and 2010. The assessment categorizes counties and sub-watersheds based on the estimated amount of change to forest cover in the area. From the data collected we recognize that although forest cover has not been greatly impacted (with an average loss of percent forest coverage of 0.16% at the county level), landscape structure is affected. Increase in edge forest and decrease in interior forest is evident in many of the counties and sub-watersheds examined. These changes can have a detrimental effect on forest biodiversity and...

Abstract:
Oil development in the Bakken shale region has increased rapidly as a result of new technologies and strong demand for fossil fuel. This region also supports a particularly high density and diversity of grassland bird species, which are declining across North America. We examined grassland bird response to unconventional oil extraction sites (i.e. developed with hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling techniques) and associated roads in North Dakota. Our goal was to quantify the amount of habitat that was indirectly degraded by oil development, as evidenced by patterns of avoidance by birds. Grassland birds avoided areas within 150 m of roads (95% CI: 87–214 m), 267 m of single-bore well pads (95% CI: 157–378 m), and 150 m of multi-bore well pads (95% CI: 67–233 m). Individual species demonstrated variable tolerance of well pads. Clay-colored sparrows (Spizella pallida) were tolerant of oil-related infrastructure, whereas Sprague's pipit (Anthus spragueii) avoided areas within 350 m (95% CI: 215–485 m) of single-bore well pads. Given these density patterns around oil wells, the potential footprint of any individual oil well, and oil development across the region, is greatly multiplied for sensitive species. Efforts to reduce new road construction, concentrate wells along developed corridors, combine numerous wells on multi-bore pads rather than build many single-bore wells, and to place well pads near existing roads will serve to minimize loss of suitable habitat for birds. Quantifying environmental degradation caused by oil development is a critical step in understanding how to better mitigate harm to wildlife populations.

Abstract:
Exploration and extraction of oil and natural gas have increased in recent years and are expected to expand in the future. Reduction in water quality from energy extraction may negatively affect water supply for agriculture and urban use within catchments as well as down river. We used non-invasive genetic techniques and capture–recapture modeling to estimate the abundance and density of North American river otters (Lontra canadensis), a sentinel species of aquatic ecosystems, in Southwestern Wyoming. While densities in two of three river reaches were similar to those reported in other freshwater systems in the western US (1.45–2.39 km per otter), otters appeared to avoid areas near energy development. We found no strong difference in habitat variables, such as overstory cover, at the site or reach level. Also, fish abundance was similar among the three river reaches. Otter activity in our study area could have been affected by elevated levels of disturbance surrounding the industrial gas fields, and by potential surface water contamination as indicated by patterns in water conductivity. Continued monitoring of surface water quality in Southwestern Wyoming with the aid of continuously recording devices and sentinel species is warranted.

Abstract:
The risk of contamination of surface waters from hydraulic fracturing activities (i.e., fracking) to extract gas from underground shale formations has been viewed primarily in the context of localized point-source events such as spills with no evidence of contaminants entering food chains. We showed that in watersheds where hydraulic fracturing occurs, an obligate riparian songbird and top predator in headwater systems, the Louisiana Waterthrush (Parkesia motacilla), accumulated metals associated with the fracking process. In both the Marcellus and Fayetteville shale regions, barium and strontium were found at significantly higher levels in feathers of birds in sites with fracking activity than at sites without fracking. The question of what pathway these metals followed from the shale layers to enter the food chain was not resolved by this study, but our data suggested a recent origin for these metals in the riparian systems we studied because levels of barium and strontium in feather samples from reference sites in the Marcellus Region without fracking activity did not differ from historical samples of waterthrush feathers gathered prior to any fracking in the region. Our finding of similarly elevated levels of metals associated with fracking in two geographically distant shale formations suggests hydraulic fracturing may be contaminating surface waters and underscores the need for additional monitoring and study to further assess ecological and human health risks posed by the increasingly widespread development of unconventional sources of natural gas around the world.

Abstract:
Extraction of oil and natural gas (hydrocarbons) from shale is increasing rapidly in North America, with documented impacts to native species and ecosystems. With shale oil and gas resources on nearly every continent, this development is set to become a major driver of global land-use change. It is increasingly critical to quantify spatial habitat loss driven by this development to implement effective mitigation strategies and develop habitat offsets. Habitat selection is a fundamental ecological process, influencing both individual fitness and population-level distribution on the landscape. Examinations of habitat selection provide a natural means for understanding spatial impacts. We examined the impact of natural gas development on habitat selection patterns of mule deer on their winter range in Colorado. We fit resource selection functions in a Bayesian hierarchical framework, with habitat availability defined using a movement-based modeling approach. Energy development drove considerable alterations to deer habitat selection patterns, with the most substantial impacts manifested as avoidance of well pads with active drilling to a distance of at least 800 m. Deer displayed more nuanced responses to other infrastructure, avoiding pads with active production and roads to a greater degree during the day than night. In aggregate, these responses equate to alteration of behavior by human development in over 50% of the critical winter range in our study area during the day and over 25% at night. Compared to other regions, the topographic and vegetative diversity in the study area appear to provide refugia that allow deer to behaviorally mediate some of the impacts of development. This study, and the methods we employed, provides a template for quantifying spatial take by industrial activities in natural areas and the results offer guidance for policy makers, mangers, and industry when attempting to mitigate habitat loss due to energy development.

Abstract:
Development associated with natural gas extraction may have negative effects on wildlife. Here we assessed the effects of natural gas development on the distributions of three sagebrush-obligate birds (Brewer's Sparrow, Spizella breweri; Sagebrush Sparrow, Amphispiza belli; and Sage Thrasher, Oreoscoptes montanus) at a natural gas extraction site in Wyoming, USA. Two drivers of habitat disturbance were investigated: natural gas well pads and roadways. Disturbances were quantified on a small scale (minimum distance to a disturbance) and a large scale (landscape density of a disturbance). Their effects on the study species' distributions were assessed using a multi-scale occupancy model. Minimum distances to wells and roadways were found to not have significant impacts on small-scale occupancy. However, roadway and well density at the landscape-scale significantly impacted the large-scale occupancy of Sagebrush Sparrows and Sage Thrashers. The results confirmed our hypotheses that increasing road density negatively affects the landscape-scale occupancy rates of Sagebrush Sparrow and Sage Thrasher, but did not confirm our hypothesis that increasing well density would negatively impact large-scale occupancy. We therefore suggest that linear features that affect patch size may be more important than point features in determining sagebrush-obligate songbird occupancy when compared to structural effects such as habitat fragmentation and increased predation. We recommend that future well construction be focused along existing roadways, that horizontal drilling be used to reduce the need for additional roads, and that deactivation and restoration of roadways be implemented upon the deactivation of wells, we also recommend a possible mitigation strategy when new roads are to be built.

Abstract:
The spatial footprint of unconventional (hydraulic fracturing) and conventional oil and gas development in the Marcellus Shale region of the State of Pennsylvania was digitized from high-resolution, ortho-rectified, digital aerial photography, from 2004 to 2010. We used these data to measure the spatial extent of oil and gas development and to assess the exposure of the extant natural resources across the landscape of the watersheds in the study area. We found that either form of development: (1) occurred in ~50% of the 930 watersheds that defined the study area; (2) was closer to streams than the recommended safe distance in ~50% of the watersheds; (3) was in some places closer to impaired streams and state-defined wildland trout streams than the recommended safe distance; (4) was within 10 upstream kilometers of surface drinking water intakes in ~45% of the watersheds that had surface drinking water intakes; (5) occurred in ~10% of state-defined exceptional value watersheds; (6) occurred in ~30% of the watersheds with resident populations defined as disproportionately exposed to pollutants; (7) tended to occur at interior forest locations; and (8) had >100 residents within 3 km for ~30% of the unconventional oil and gas development sites. Further, we found that exposure to the potential effects of landscape disturbance attributable to conventional oil and gas development was more prevalent than its unconventional counterpart.

Abstract:
Oil and gas extraction in shale plays expanded rapidly in the U.S. and is projected to expand globally in the coming decades. Arkansas has doubled the number of gas wells in the state since 2005 mostly by extracting gas from the Fayetteville Shale with activity concentrated in mixed pasture-deciduous forests. Concentrated well pads in close proximity to streams could have adverse effects on stream water quality and biota if sedimentation associated with developing infrastructure or contamination from fracturing fluid and waste occurs. Cumulative effects of gas activity and local habitat conditions on macroinvertebrate communities were investigated across a gradient of gas well activity (0.2-3.6wells per km(2)) in ten stream catchments in spring 2010 and 2011. In 2010, macroinvertebrate density was positively related to well pad inverse flowpath distance from streams (r=0.84, p<0.001). Relatively tolerant mayflies Baetis and Caenis (r=0.64, p=0.04), filtering hydropsychid caddisflies (r=0.73, p=0.01), and chironomid midge densities (r=0.79, p=0.008) also increased in streams where more well pads were closer to stream channels. Macroinvertebrate trophic structure reflected environmental conditions with greater sediment and primary production in streams with more gas activity close to streams. However, stream water turbidity (r=0.69, p=0.02) and chlorophyll a (r=0.89, p<0.001) were the only in-stream variables correlated with gas well activities. In 2011, a year with record spring flooding, a different pattern emerged where mayfly density (p=0.74, p=0.01) and mayfly, stonefly, and caddisfly richness (r=0.78, p=0.008) increased in streams with greater well density and less silt cover. Hydrology and well pad placement in a catchment may interact to result in different relationships between biota and catchment activity between the two sample years. Our data show evidence of different macroinvertebrate communities expressed in catchments with different levels of gas activity that reinforce the need for more quantitative analyses of cumulative freshwater-effects from oil and gas development.

Abstract:
We assess the spatial and geomorphic fragmentation from the recent Eagle Ford Shale play in La Salle County, Texas, USA. Wells and pipelines were overlaid onto base maps of land cover, soil properties, vegetation assemblages, and hydrologic units. Changes to continuity of different ecoregions and supporting landscapes were assessed using the Landscape Fragmentation Tool (a third-party ArcGIS extension) as quantified by land area and continuity of core landscape areas (i.e., those degraded by “edge effects”). Results show decreases in core areas (8.7 %; ~33,290 ha) and increases in landscape patches (0.2 %; ~640 ha), edges (1.8 %; ~6940 ha), and perforated areas (4.2 %; ~16230 ha). Pipeline construction dominates landscape disturbance, followed by drilling and injection pads (85, 15, and 0.03 % of disturbed area, respectively). An increased potential for soil loss is indicated, with 51 % (~5790 ha) of all disturbance regimes occurring on soils with low water-transmission rates (depth to impermeable layer less than 50 cm) and a high surface runoff potential (hydrologic soil group D). Additionally, 88 % (~10,020 ha) of all disturbances occurred on soils with a wind erodibility index of approximately 19 kt/km2/year (0.19 kt/ha/year) or higher, resulting in an estimated potential of 2 million tons of soil loss per year. Results demonstrate that infrastructure placement is occurring on soils susceptible to erosion while reducing and splitting core areas potentially vital to ecosystem services.

Abstract:
The increased demand for oil and gas places a burden on lands set aside for natural resource conservation. Oil and gas development alters the environment locally and on a much broader spatial scale depending on the intensity and extent of mineral resource extraction. The current increase in oil and gas exploration and production in the United States prompted an update of the number of pipelines and wells associated with oil and gas production on National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) lands. We obtained geospatial data on the location of oil and gas wells and pipelines within and close to the boundaries of NWRS lands (units) acquired as fee simple (i.e. absolute title to the surface land) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. We found that 5,002 wells are located in 107 NWRS units and 595 pipelines transect 149 of the 599 NWRS units. Almost half of the wells (2,196) were inactive, one-third (1,665) were active, and the remainder of the wells were either plugged and abandoned or the status was unknown. Pipelines crossed a total of 2,155 kilometers (1,339 miles) of NWRS fee simple lands. The high level of oil and gas activity warrants follow up assessments for wells lacking information on production type or well status with emphasis on verifying the well status and identifying abandoned and unplugged wells. NWRS fee simple lands should also be assessed for impacts from brine, oil and other hydrocarbon spills, as well as habitat alteration associated with oil and gas, including the identification of abandoned oil and gas facilities requiring equipment removal and site restoration.

Abstract:
Advanced technologies in oil and gas extraction coupled with energy demand have encouraged an average of 50,000 new wells per year throughout central North America since 2000. Although similar to past trends (see the graph, this page), the space and infrastructure required for horizontal drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing are transforming millions of hectares of the Great Plains into industrialized landscapes, with drilling projected to continue (1, 2). Although this development brings economic benefits (3) and expectations of energy security, policy and regulation give little attention to trade-offs in the form of lost or degraded ecosystem services (4). It is the scale of this transformation that is important, as accumulating land degradation can result in continental impacts that are undetectable when focusing on any single region (5). With the impact of this transformation on natural systems and ecosystem services yet to be quantified at broad extents, decisions are being made with few data at hand (see the graph, this page).

Abstract:
Global energy demands continue to result in new and emerging sources of anthropogenic disturbance to populations and systems. Here, we assessed the influence of natural gas development on a critical component of fitness (nest survival) for Brewer’s sparrow (Spizella breweri), sagebrush sparrow (Artemisiospiza nevadensis), and sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus), three species of sagebrush-obligate songbirds that are of conservation concern, and assessed the efficacy of a commonly used index of oil and gas development intensity (well density) for estimating habitat transformation and predicting species’ responses. During 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 we monitored 926 nests within two natural gas fields in western Wyoming, USA. We calculated landscape metrics (habitat loss, amount of edge, patch shape complexity, and mean patch size) to identify the aspect of landscape transformation most captured by well density. Well density was most positively associated with the amount of sagebrush habitat loss within 1 square kilometer. Nest survival was relatively invariant with respect to well density for all three species. In contrast, nest survival rates of all three species generally decreased with surrounding habitat loss due to energy development. Thus, although well density and habitat loss were strongly correlated, well density resulted in overly conservative estimates of nest survival probability. Our results emphasize the importance of careful evaluation of the appropriateness of particular indices for quantifying the effects of human-induced habitat change. For managers concerned about the effects of natural gas development or similar forms of human land use to co-occurring breeding birds, we recommend minimizing the amount of associated habitat conversion.

Abstract:
Mercury (Hg) is a persistent element in the environment that has the ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify up the food chain with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems and human health. Twenty-four streams remotely located in forested watersheds in northwestern PA containing naturally reproducing Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout), were targeted to gain a better understanding of how Marcellus shale natural gas exploration may be impacting water quality, aquatic biodiversity, and Hg bioaccumulation in aquatic ecosystems. During the summer of 2012, stream water, stream bed sediments, aquatic mosses, macroinvertebrates, crayfish, brook trout, and microbial samples were collected. All streams either had experienced hydraulic fracturing (fracked, n = 14) or not yet experienced hydraulic fracturing (non-fracked, n = 10) within their watersheds at the time of sampling. Analysis of watershed characteristics (GIS) for fracked vs non-fracked sites showed no significant differences (P > 0.05), justifying comparisons between groups. Results showed significantly higher dissolved total mercury (FTHg) in stream water (P = 0.007), lower pH (P = 0.033), and higher dissolved organic matter (P = 0.001) at fracked sites. Total mercury (THg) concentrations in crayfish (P = 0.01), macroinvertebrates (P = 0.089), and predatory macroinvertebrates (P = 0.039) were observed to be higher for fracked sites. A number of positive correlations between amount of well pads within a watershed and THg in crayfish (r = 0.76, P < 0.001), THg in predatory macroinvertebrates (r = 0.71, P < 0.001), and THg in brook trout (r = 0.52, P < 0.01) were observed. Stream-water microbial communities within the Deltaproteobacteria also shared a positive correlation with FTHg and to the number of well pads, while stream pH (r = −0.71, P < 0.001), fish biodiversity (r = −0.60, P = 0.02), and macroinvertebrate taxa richness (r = −0.60, P = 0.01) were negatively correlated with the number of well pads within a watershed. Further investigation is needed to better elucidate relationships and pathways of observed differences in stream water chemistry, biodiversity, and Hg bioaccumulation, however, initial findings suggest Marcellus shale natural gas exploration is having an effect on aquatic ecosystems.