Repository for Oil and Gas Energy Research (ROGER)

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Microorganisms play several important roles in unconventional gas recovery, from biodegradation of hydrocarbons to souring of wells and corrosion of equipment. During and after the hydraulic fracturing process, microorganisms are subjected to harsh physicochemical conditions within the kilometer-deep hydrocarbon-bearing shale, including high pressures, elevated temperatures, exposure to chemical additives and biocides, and brine-level salinities. A portion of the injected fluid returns to the surface and may be reused in other fracturing operations, a process that can enrich for certain taxa. This study tracked microbial community dynamics using pyrotag sequencing of 16S rRNA genes in water samples from three hydraulically fractured Marcellus Shale wells in Pennsylvania, USA over a 328-day period. There was a reduction in microbial richness and diversity after fracturing, with the lowest diversity at 49 days. Thirty-one taxa dominated injected, flowback, and produced water communities, which took on distinct signatures as injected carbon and electron acceptors were attenuated within the shale. The majority (>90%) of the community in flowback and produced fluids were related to halotolerant bacteria associated with fermentation, hydrocarbon oxidation, and sulfur-cycling metabolisms, including heterotrophic genera Halolactibacillus, Vibrio, Marinobacter, Halanaerobium, and Halomonas, and autotrophs belonging to Arcobacter. Sequences related to halotolerant methanogenic genera Methanohalophilus and Methanolobus were detected at low abundance (<2%) in produced waters several months after hydraulic fracturing. Five taxa were strong indicators of later produced fluids. These results provide insight into the temporal trajectory of subsurface microbial communities after ?fracking?, and have important implications for the enrichment of microbes potentially detrimental to well infrastructure and natural gas fouling during this process.

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Hourly ambient hydrocarbon concentration data were collected, in the Barnett Shale Natural Gas Production Region, using automated gas chromatography (auto-GC), for the period from April 2010 to December 2011. Data for three sites were compared: a site in the geographical center of the natural gas production region (Eagle Mountain Lake (EML)); a rural/suburban site at the periphery of the production region (Flower Mound Shiloh), and an urban site (Hinton). The dominant hydrocarbon species observed in the Barnett Shale region were light alkanes. Analyses of daily, monthly, and hourly patterns showed little variation in relative composition. Observed concentrations were compared to concentrations predicted using a dispersion model (AERMOD) and a spatially resolved inventory of volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions from natural gas production (Barnett Shale Special Emissions Inventory) prepared by the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ), and other emissions information. The predicted concentrations of VOC due to natural gas production were 0?40% lower than background corrected measurements, after accounting for potential under-estimation of certain emission categories. Hourly and daily variations in observed, background corrected concentrations were primarily explained by variability in meteorology, suggesting that episodic emission events had little impact on hourly averaged concentrations. Total emissions for VOC from natural gas production sources are estimated to be approximately 25?300 tons/yr, when accounting for potential under-estimation of certain emission categories. This region produced, in 2011, approximately 5 bcf/d of natural gas (100 Gg/d) for a VOC to natural gas production ratio (mass basis) of 0.0006.

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Emissions of methane (CH4) from oil and natural (O&G) gas operations in the most densely drilled area of the Denver-Julesburg (D-J) Basin in Weld County located in northeastern Colorado are estimated for two days in May 2012 using aircraft-based CH4 observations and planetary boundary layer height and ground-based wind profile measurements. Total top-down CH4 emission estimates are 25.8 ± 8.4 and 26.2 ± 10.7 tonnes CH4/hr for the May 29 and May 31 flights, respectively. Using inventory data, we estimate the total emissions of CH4 from non-O&G gas related sources at 7.1 ± 1.7 and 6.3 ± 1.0 tonnes CH4/hr for these two days. The difference in emissions is attributed to O&G sources in the study region and their total emission is on average 19.3 ± 6.9 tonnes/hr, close to three times higher than an hourly emission estimate based on EPA's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program data for 2012. We derive top-down emissions estimates for propane, n-butane, i-pentane, n-pentane, and benzene from our total top-down CH4 emission estimate and the relative hydrocarbon abundances in aircraft-based discrete air samples. Emissions for these five non-methane hydrocarbons alone total 25.4 ± 8.2 tonnes/hr. Assuming these emissions are solely originating from O&G related activities in the study region, our results show that the state inventory for total VOC emitted by O&G activities is at least a factor of two too low for May 2012. Our top-down emission estimate of benzene emissions from O&G operations is 173 ± 64 kg/hr, or seven times larger than in the state inventory.

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Fossil fuel extraction activities generate wastewaters that are often high in total dissolved solids (TDS) and specific constituents that can affect drinking water, if these wastewaters enter surface waters. Control of TDS in source waters is difficult without identification of the potential sources of high TDS wastewater associated with fossil fuel activities. Characteristics of natural waters, oil and gas-produced waters, and coal-related wastewaters were analyzed to extract information about constituent concentrations and anion ratios. Statistical analysis of the anion ratios indicates that the SO4/Cl ratio is higher in coal-related wastewaters than in oil and gas-produced waters, suggesting that wastewaters can be distinguished based on this ratio. An approach that compared the SO4/Cl ratio with bromide concentration for the wastewaters can serve to separate oil and gas-produced waters from brine treatment plant discharges, and from the various coal-related wastewaters. This method was applied to surface water quality data collected from two tributaries in Southwestern Pennsylvania from September 2009 to September 2012. Results show that this constituent and ratio method, combined with mixing curve calculations, can be used to identify water quality changes in these two tributaries. Similar mixing models, when applied to regionally relevant high TDS wastewater data, may be used in other areas experiencing water quality changes resulting from fossil fuel extraction activities. (C) 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.

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Flowback water from natural gas extraction in Marcellus Shale contains very high concentrations of inorganic salts and organic chemicals. Potential reuse of this water in subsequent hydraulic-fracturing operations may be limited by high concentrations of divalent cations (e. g., Ba, Sr, and Ca). Kinetics of barite and celestite precipitation in flowback waters from different well sites was evaluated in this study. Ba reacted rapidly with sulfate and reached equilibrium within 30 min, whereas Sr reacted slowly and took days to reach equilibrium. Equilibrium concentrations of Ba and Sr predicted by thermodynamics models were compared with experimental results. Activity corrections based on the Pitzer equation provided the best agreement with experimental data for both Ba and Sr. Comparison of barite and celestite precipitation kinetics in actual and synthetic flowback water revealed that there was no observable impact of organics and other minor components in actual flowback water on barite precipitation rate. This was primarily due to the fact that barite precipitation occurred relatively quickly at the high saturation levels utilized in this study. By contrast, lattice poisoning and complexation with organic matter had a profound impact on the comparatively slower celestite precipitation. The presence of organic matter in actual flowback water increased Ba and Sr concentrations in solution, and contributed to the discrepancy between measured and predicted equilibrium concentrations. (C) 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.

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Prerequisite to detailed risk analyses of flowback and produced water management from unconventional resource extraction is the thorough characterization of wastewater management strategies, treatment technologies, prices, and future developments. This expert elicitation compares professional responses on current practices and future trends in wastewater management from Pennsylvania's Marcellus formation across the oil and gas sector, the wastewater treatment sector, and the regulatory sector. Although expert judgments were highly influenced by the respondent's role in unconventional resource development, the results of this expert elicitation suggest that water reuse is not inhibited by high concentrations of total dissolved solids, that waste transport accounts for the majority of the cost associated with off-site wastewater treatment and disposal, and that prices for commercial wastewater treatment are likely to drop over the next five years. Taken together, these results indicate that long-term water reuse is a viable strategy for oil and gas wastewater management among companies with continuous or near continuous drilling operations and that future risk analyses of oil and gas wastewater management should concentrate on reuse activity. The results also suggest that expanding economical water reuse practices to companies that drill fewer sequential or spatially clustered wells may require regulatory or policy intervention. (C) 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.

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We propose a framework to facilitate the evaluation of the impacts of shale gas infrastructures (well pads, roads, and pipelines) on land cover features, especially with regards to forest fragmentation. We used a geographic information system and realistic development scenarios largely inspired by the PA (United States) experience, but adapted to a region of QC (Canada) with an already fragmented forest cover and a high gas potential. The scenario with the greatest impact results from development limited by regulatory constraints only, with no access to private roads for connecting well pads to the public road network. The scenario with the lowest impact additionally integrates ecological constraints (deer yards, maple woodlots, and wetlands). Overall the differences between these two scenarios are relatively minor, with <1 % of the forest cover lost in each case. However, large areas of core forests would be lost in both scenarios and the number of forest patches would increase by 13–21 % due to fragmentation. The pipeline network would have a much greater footprint on the land cover than access roads. Using data acquired since the beginning of the shale gas industry, we show that it is possible, within a reasonable time frame, to produce a robust assessment of the impacts of shale gas extraction. The framework we propose could easily be applied to other contexts or jurisdictions.

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The use of natural gas that is obtained from high-volume hydraulic fracturing (fracking) may reduce carbon emissions relative to the use of coal and have substantial economic benefits for South Africa. However, concerns have been raised regarding the health and environmental impacts. The drilling and fracking processes use hundreds of chemicals as well as silica sand. Additional elements are either released from or formed in the shale during drilling. These substances can enter the environment in various ways: through failures in the well casing; via alternative underground pathways; as wastewater, spills and leaks on the wellpad; through transportation accidents; and as air pollution. Although many of these chemicals and elements have known adverse health effects, there is little evidence available on the health impacts of fracking. These health concerns have not yet been fully addressed in policy making, and the authors recommend that the voice of health professionals should be part of the public debate on fracking and that a full health impact assessment be required before companies are given the go-ahead to drill.

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Tackling climate change and reducing reliance on energy imports justify the exploitation of unconventional energy around the word. Influenced by the U.S. shale gas massive development, Chinese government set an ambitious plan to produce 6.5 billion m3 of shale gas by 2015, 60–100 billion m3 by 2020, and then 13 provinces were given priorities for exploitation. China's shale gas production will go ahead. Local government's ambitious targets combined with technical bottlenecks, lack of drilling experience, poor extraction operations, lagging infrastructure construction, imperfect price mechanism, water shortages, water contamination, and other undesired environmental effects with significant levels of uncertainty, are major impediments for shale gas revolution in China. Exploitation of shale gas reserves offers opportunities for China to meet its growing energy demands and reduce the reliance on energy imports. But China's ongoing shale gas plans should be seriously re-evaluated with reference to eco-environmental and social impacts. This is a unique and great opportunity for China to be a demonstration model, especially for other countries wanting of shale gas.

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Emerging technologies pose particularly strong challenges for risk governance when they have multidimensional and inequitable impacts, when there is scientific uncertainty about the technology and its risks, when there are strong value conflicts over the perceived benefits and risks, when decisions must be made urgently, and when the decision making environment is rife with mistrust. Shale gas development is one such emerging technology. Drawing on previous U.S. National Research Council committee reports that examined risk decision making for complex issues like these, we point to the benefits and challenges of applying the analytic-deliberative process recommened in those reports for stakeholder and public engagement in risk decision making about shale gas development in the United States. We discuss the different phases of such a process and conclude by noting the dangers of allowing controversy to ossify and the benefits of sound dialogue and learning among publics, stakeholders, industry, and regulatory decision makers.

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We present a new, spatially resolved inventory of methane (CH4) emissions based on US-EPA emission factors and publically available activity data for 2010 California petroleum production and natural gas production, processing, transmission, and distribution. Compared to official California bottom-up inventories, our initial estimates are 3 to 7 times higher for the petroleum and natural gas production sectors but similar for the natural gas transmission and distribution sectors. Evidence from published ?top-down? atmospheric measurement campaigns within southern California supports our initial emission estimates from production and processing, but indicates emission estimates from transmission and distribution are low by a factor of approximately 2. To provide emission maps with more accurate total emissions we scale the spatially resolved inventory by sector-specific results from a Southern California aircraft measurement campaign to all of California. Assuming uncertainties are determined by the uncertainties estimated in the top-down study, our estimated state total CH4 emissions are 541±144 Gg yr-1, (as compared with 210.7 Gg yr-1 in California?s current official inventory), where the majority of our reported uncertainty is derived from transmission and distribution. We note uncertainties relative to the mean for a given region are likely larger than that for the State total, emphasizing the need for additional measurements in under sampled regions.

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Advances in technologies for extracting oil and gas from shale formations have dramatically increased U.S. production of natural gas. As production expands domestically and abroad, natural gas prices will be lower than without shale gas. Lower prices have two main effects: increasing overall energy consumption, and encouraging substitution away from sources such as coal, nuclear, renewables, and electricity. We examine the evidence and analyze modeling projections to understand how these two dynamics affect greenhouse gas emissions. Most evidence indicates that natural gas as a substitute for coal in electricity production, gasoline in transport, and electricity in buildings decreases greenhouse gases, although as an electricity substitute this depends on the electricity mix displaced. Modeling suggests that absent substantial policy changes, increased natural gas production slightly increases overall energy use, more substantially encourages fuel-switching, and that the combined effect slightly alters economy-wide GHG emissions; whether the net effect is a slight decrease or increase depends on modeling assumptions including upstream methane emissions. Our main conclusions are that natural gas can help reduce GHG emissions, but in the absence of targeted climate policy measures, it will not substantially change the course of global GHG concentrations. Abundant natural gas can, however, help reduce the costs of achieving GHG reduction goals.

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Efficient use of water, particularly in the western U.S., is an increasingly important aspect of many activities including agriculture, urban and industry. As the population increases and agriculture and energy needs continue to rise, the pressure on water and other natural resources is expected to intensify. Recent advances in technology have stimulated growth in oil and gas development as well as increasing the industry?s need for water resources. This study provides an analysis of how efficiently water resources are used for unconventional shale development in Northeastern Colorado. The study is focused on the Wattenberg Field in the Denver-Julesberg Basin. The 2,000 square mile field located in a semi-arid climate with competing agriculture, municipal, and industrial water demands was one of the first fields where widespread use of hydraulic fracturing was implemented. The consumptive water intensity is measured using a ratio of the net water consumption and the net energy recovery and is used to measure how efficiently water is used for energy extraction. The water and energy use as well as energy recovery data were collected from 200 Noble Energy Inc. wells to estimate the consumptive water intensity. The consumptive water intensity of unconventional shale in the Wattenberg is compared with the consumptive water intensity for extraction of other fuels for other energy sources including coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear, and renewables. 1.4 to 7.5 million gallons is required to drill and hydraulically fracture horizontal wells before energy is extracted in the Wattenberg Field. However, when the large acute water demand is normalized to the amount of energy produced over the lifespan of a well, the consumptive water intensity is estimated to be between 1.8 and 2.7 gal/MMBtu and is similar to surface coal mining.

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Gas recovery from shale formations has been made possible by advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing technology. Rapid adoption of these methods has created a surge in natural gas production in the United States and increased public concern about its environmental and human health effects. We surveyed the environmental literature relevant to shale gas development and studied over fifteen well sites and impoundments in West Virginia to evaluate pollution caused by air emissions, light and noise during drilling. Our study also characterized liquid and solid waste streams generated by drilling and hydraulic fracturing and evaluated the integrity of impoundments used to store fluids produced by hydraulic fracturing. While most shale gas wells are completed with little or no environmental contamination, we found that many of the problems associated with shale gas development resulted from inattention to accepted engineering practices such as impoundment construction, improper liner installation and a lack of institutional controls. Recommendations are provided based on the literature and our field studies. They will address not all but a great many of the deficiencies that result in environmental release of contaminants from shale gas development. We also identified areas where new technologies are needed to fully address contaminant releases to air and water.

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Radium occurs in flowback and produced waters from hydraulic fracturing for unconventional gas extraction along with high concentrations of barium and strontium and elevated salinity. Radium is often removed from this wastewater by co-precipitation with barium or other alkaline earth metals. The distribution equation for Ra in the precipitate is derived from the equilibrium of the lattice replacement reaction (inclusion) between the Ra2+ ion and the carrier ions (e.g., Ba2+ and Sr2+) in aqueous and solid phases and is often applied to describe the fate of radium in these systems. Although the theoretical distribution coefficient for Ra?SrSO4 (Kd = 237) is much larger than that for Ra?BaSO4 (Kd = 1.54), previous studies have focused on Ra?BaSO4 equilibrium. This study evaluates the equilibria and kinetics of co-precipitation reactions in Ra?Ba?SO4 and Ra?Sr?SO4 binary systems and the Ra?Ba?Sr?SO4 ternary system under varying ionic strength (IS) conditions that are representative of brines generated during unconventional gas extraction. Results show that radium removal generally follows the theoretical distribution law in binary systems and is enhanced in the Ra?Ba?SO4 system and restrained in the Ra?Sr?SO4 system by high IS. However, the experimental distribution coefficient (Kd?) varies widely and cannot be accurately described by the distribution equation, which depends on IS, kinetics of carrier precipitation and does not account for radium removal by adsorption. Radium removal in the ternary system is controlled by the co-precipitation of Ra?Ba?SO4, which is attributed to the rapid BaSO4 nucleation rate and closer ionic radii of Ra2+ with Ba2+ than with Sr2+. Carrier (i.e., barite) recycling during water treatment was shown to be effective in enhancing radium removal even after co-precipitation was completed. Calculations based on experimental results show that Ra levels in the precipitate generated in centralized waste treatment facilities far exceed regulatory limits for disposal in municipal sanitary landfills and require careful monitoring of allowed source term loading (ASTL) for technically enhanced naturally occurring materials (TENORM) in these landfills. Several alternatives for sustainable management of TENORM are discussed.

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The identification and quantification of methane emissions from natural gas production has become increasingly important owing to the increase in the natural gas component of the energy sector. An instrumented aircraft platform was used to identify large sources of methane and quantify emission rates in southwestern PA in June 2012. A large regional flux, 2.0–14 g CH4 s−1 km−2, was quantified for a ∼2,800-km2 area, which did not differ statistically from a bottom-up inventory, 2.3–4.6 g CH4 s−1 km−2. Large emissions averaging 34 g CH4/s per well were observed from seven well pads determined to be in the drilling phase, 2 to 3 orders of magnitude greater than US Environmental Protection Agency estimates for this operational phase. The emissions from these well pads, representing ∼1% of the total number of wells, account for 4–30% of the observed regional flux. More work is needed to determine all of the sources of methane emissions from natural gas production, to ascertain why these emissions occur and to evaluate their climate and atmospheric chemistry impacts.

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We briefly describe how toxicology can inform the discussion and debate of the merits of hydraulic fracturing by providing information on the potential toxicity of the chemical and physical agents associated with this process, individually and in combination. We consider upstream activities related to bringing chemical and physical agents to the site; on-site activities including drilling of wells and containment of agents injected into or produced from the well; and downstream activities including the flow/removal of hydrocarbon products and of produced water from the site. A broad variety of chemical and physical agents are involved. As the industry expands this has raised concern about the potential for toxicological effects on ecosystems, workers and the general public. Response to these concerns requires a concerted and collaborative toxicological assessment. This assessment should take into account the different geology in areas newly subjected to hydraulic fracturing as well as evolving industrial practices that can alter the chemical and physical agents of toxicological interest. The potential for ecosystem or human exposure to mixtures of these agents presents a particular toxicological and public health challenge. These data are essential for developing a reliable assessment of the potential risks to the environment and to human health of the rapidly increasing use of hydraulic fracturing and deep underground horizontal drilling techniques for tightly bound shale gas and other fossil fuels. Input from toxicologists will be most effective when employed early in the process, before there are unwanted consequences to the environment and human health, or economic losses due to the need to abandon or rework costly initiatives.

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Increased use of hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) in unconventional oil and natural gas (O & NG) development from coal, sandstone, and shale deposits in the United States (US) has created environmental concerns over water and air quality impacts. In this perspective we focus on how the production of unconventional O & NG affects air quality. We pay particular attention to shale gas as this type of development has transformed natural gas production in the US and is set to become important in the rest of the world. A variety of potential emission sources can be spread over tens of thousands of acres of a production area and this complicates assessment of local and regional air quality impacts. We outline upstream activities including drilling, completion and production. After contrasting the context for development activities in the US and Europe we explore the use of inventories for determining air emissions. Location and scale of analysis is important, as O & NG production emissions in some US basins account for nearly 100% of the pollution burden, whereas in other basins these activities make up less than 10% of total air emissions. While emission inventories are beneficial to quantifying air emissions from a particular source category, they do have limitations when determining air quality impacts from a large area. Air monitoring is essential, not only to validate inventories, but also to measure impacts. We describe the use of measurements, including ground-based mobile monitoring, network stations, airborne, and satellite platforms for measuring air quality impacts. We identify nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOC), ozone, hazardous air pollutants (HAP), and methane as pollutants of concern related to O & NG activities. These pollutants can contribute to air quality concerns and they may be regulated in ambient air, due to human health or climate forcing concerns. Close to well pads, emissions are concentrated and exposure to a wide range of pollutants is possible. Public health protection is improved when emissions are controlled and facilities are located away from where people live. Based on lessons learned in the US we outline an approach for future unconventional O & NG development that includes regulation, assessment and monitoring.

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Cultivation of native prairie was likely the primary cause of historical declines of grassland bird populations in North America, but the increase in natural gas development may be exacerbating those declines through habitat loss and degradation. We quantified the abundance of grassland songbirds and vegetation structure across a gradient of natural gas well densities to determine the extent to which density and proximity of gas wells influence songbird abundance. In 2008 and 2009, we conducted 1,258 point counts on 105 native grassland parcels (1.6 km2/parcel) at varying distances from natural gas wells and with varying gas well densities (0–25 per 1.6 km2). We found that vegetation structure influenced bird abundance more strongly than natural gas well proximity or density for all but 1 species and that the response of grassland songbirds to natural gas well density and proximity varied among species and regions. Sprague's pipit (Anthus spragueii) and Baird's sparrow (Ammodramus bairdii) abundance was not influenced by natural gas well proximity or density. Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum), McCown's longspur (Rhynchophanes mccownii), and chestnut-collared longspur (Calcarius ornatus) abundance was lower near gas wells, but both longspur species were also more abundant in areas with greater densities of gas wells. Horned lark (Eremophilus alpestris) abundance increased with well density in our northern study site. Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) abundance was higher near gas wells, but only in areas where well density was ≤9 wells/1.6 km2. We suggest that land managers and industry implement remediation activities that encourage vegetative re-growth, thus reducing the potential interactive relationship between natural gas development and changes in vegetation structure. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

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Using survey and interview data gathered from educators and educational administrators, we investigate school and community impacts of unconventional gas extraction within Pennsylvania's Marcellus Shale region. Respondents in areas with high levels of drilling are significantly more likely to perceive the effects of local economic gains, but also report increased inequality, heightened vulnerability of disadvantaged community members, and pronounced strains on local infrastructure. As community stakeholders in positions of local leadership, school leaders in areas experiencing Marcellus Shale natural gas extraction often face multiple decision-making dilemmas. These dilemmas occur in the context of incomplete information and rapid, unpredictable community change involving the emergence of both new opportunities and new insecurities.

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Production of natural gas from shale formations is bringing drilling and production operations to regions of the United States that have seen little or no similar activity in the past, which has generated considerable interest in potential environmental impacts. This study focused on the Barnett Shale Fort Worth Basin in Texas, which saw the number of gas-producing wells grow from 726 in 2001 to 15,870 in 2011. This study aimed to measure fence line concentrations of methane and hydrogen sulfide at natural gas production sites (wells, liquid storage tanks, and associated equipment) in the four core counties of the Barnett Shale (Denton, Johnson, Tarrant, and Wise). A mobile measurement survey was conducted in the vicinity of 4788 wells near 401 lease sites, representing 35% of gas production volume, 31% of wells, and 38% of condensate production volume in the four-county core area. Methane and hydrogen sulfide concentrations were measured using a Picarro G2204 cavity ring-down spectrometer (CRDS). Since the research team did not have access to lease site interiors, measurements were made by driving on roads on the exterior of the lease sites. Over 150 hr of data were collected from March to July 2012. During two sets of drive-by measurements, it was found that 66 sites (16.5%) had methane concentrations >3 parts per million (ppm) just beyond the fence line. Thirty-two lease sites (8.0%) had hydrogen sulfide concentrations >4.7 parts per billion (ppb) (odor recognition threshold) just beyond the fence line. Measured concentrations generally did not correlate well with site characteristics (natural gas production volume, number of wells, or condensate production). t tests showed that for two counties, methane concentrations for dry sites were higher than those for wet sites. Follow-up study is recommended to provide more information at sites identified with high levels of methane and hydrogen sulfide. Implications:Information regarding air emissions from shale gas production is important given the recent increase in number of wells in various regions in the United States. Methane, the primary natural gas constituent, is a greenhouse gas; hydrogen sulfide, which can be present in gas condensate, is an odor-causing compound. This study surveyed wells representing one-third of the natural gas production volume in the Texas Barnett Shale and identified the percent of sites that warrant further study due to their fence line methane and hydrogen sulfide concentrations.

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With increased drilling for natural gas, toxic chemicals used to fracture wells have been introduced into the environment accompanied by allegations of injuries. This article evaluates laws and regulations governing shale gas production to disclose ideas for offering further protection to people and the environment. The aim of the study is to offer state governments ideas for addressing contractual obligations of drilling operators, discerning health risks, disclosing toxic chemicals, and reporting sufficient information to detect problems and enforce regulations. The discussion suggests opportunities for state regulators to become more supportive of public health through greater oversight of shale gas extraction.

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Historically, seismicity documented in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin has been relatively quiescent and earthquakes are usually restricted to the foreland belt of the Rocky Mountains. However, exceptional clusters of events, which have remained active for decades, are recognized in Alberta. In this study we investigate the seismicity in this region using data obtained from recently established regional arrays, emphasizing the relationship between a disposal well in the Cordel Field and a nearby cluster of previously reported earthquakes. We explore temporal correlations of wastewater pumping rates and local seismic activity dating back to 1960. We find that the first statistically significant increase in seismicity lags the onset of wastewater injection (October 1991) by similar to 3.33 years. In particular, the waveform similarity of 32 events are analyzed from continuous data recorded at NOR, a nearby (similar to 30 km) station operated by the University of Alberta starting in September of 2006. Results from this analysis suggest that many events are well correlated in the characteristics of the waveforms and thus are likely to share a similar origin and source mechanism. The most prolific of these multiplets repeats more than 10 times sporadically throughout the entire duration of recorded data from October 2006 to March 2012. Despite the limited availability of nearby stations, which adversely affects the resolution of our analysis, hypocenter depths could be relatively accurately determined from waveform synthesis and double difference methods. The results of our analysis provide first-order evidence that the seismicity is consistent with fluid injection-induced events.

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The unconventional fossil fuel industry is expected to expand dramatically in coming decades as conventional reserves wane. Minimizing the environmental impacts of this energy transition requires a contextualized understanding of the unique regional issues that shale gas development poses. This manuscript highlights the variation in regional water issues associated with shale gas development in the US and the approaches of various states in mitigating these impacts. The manuscript also explores opportunities for emerging international shale plays to leverage the diverse experiences of US states in formulating development strategies that minimize water related impacts within their environmental, cultural, and political ecosystem.

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Abstract Case study descriptions of acute onset of respiratory, neurologic, dermal, vascular, abdominal, and gastrointestinal sequelae near natural gas facilities contrast with a subset of emissions research, which suggests that there is limited risk posed by unconventional natural gas development (UNGD). An inspection of the pathophysiological effects of acute toxic actions reveals that current environmental monitoring protocols are incompatible with the goal of protecting the health of those living and working near UNGD activities. The intensity, frequency, and duration of exposures to toxic materials in air and water determine the health risks to individuals within a population. Currently, human health risks near UNGD sites are derived from average population risks without adequate attention to the processes of toxicity to the body. The objective of this paper is to illustrate that current methods of collecting emissions data, as well as the analyses of these data, are not sufficient for accurately assessing risks to individuals or protecting the health of those near UNGD sites. Focusing on air pollution impacts, we examined data from public sources and from the published literature. We compared the methods commonly used to evaluate health safety near UNGD sites with the information that would be reasonably needed to determine plausible outcomes of actual exposures. Such outcomes must be based on the pathophysiological effects of the agents present and the susceptibility of residents near these sites. Our study has several findings. First, current protocols used for assessing compliance with ambient air standards do not adequately determine the intensity, frequency or durations of the actual human exposures to the mixtures of toxic materials released regularly at UNGD sites. Second, the typically used periodic 24-h average measures can underestimate actual exposures by an order of magnitude. Third, reference standards are set in a form that inaccurately determines health risk because they do not fully consider the potential synergistic combinations of toxic air emissions. Finally, air dispersion modeling shows that local weather conditions are strong determinates of individual exposures. Appropriate estimation of safety requires nested protocols that measure real time exposures. New protocols are needed to provide 1) continuous measures of a surrogate compound to show periods of extreme exposure; 2) a continuous screening model based on local weather conditions to warn of periodic high exposures; and 3) comprehensive detection of chemical mixtures using canisters or other devices that capture the major components of the mixtures.

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With the introduction of hydraulic fracturing technology, the United States has become the largest natural gas producer in the world with a substantial portion of the production coming from shale plays. In this review, we examined current hydraulic fracturing literature including associated wastewater management on quantity and quality of groundwater. We conclude that proper documentation/reporting systems for wastewater discharge and spills need to be enforced at the federal, state, and industrial level. Furthermore, Underground Injection Control (UIC) requirements under SDWA should be extended to hydraulic fracturing operations regardless if diesel fuel is used as a fracturing fluid or not. One of the biggest barriers that hinder the advancement of our knowledge on the hydraulic fracturing process is the lack of transparency of chemicals used in the practice. Federal laws mandating hydraulic companies to disclose fracturing fluid composition and concentration not only to federal and state regulatory agencies but also to health care professionals would encourage this practice. The full disclosure of fracturing chemicals will allow future research to fill knowledge gaps for a better understanding of the impacts of hydraulic fracturing on human health and the environment.

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Unconventional shale gas development promises to significantly alter energy portfolios and economies around the world. It also poses a variety of environmental risks, particularly with respect to the management of water resources. We review current scientific understanding of risks associated with the following: water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing; wastewater treatment, discharge and disposal; methane and fluid migration in the subsurface; and spills and erosion at the surface. Some of these risks are relatively unique to shale gas development, while others are variations of risks that we already face from a variety of industries and activities. All of these risks depend largely on the pace and scale of development that occurs within a particular region. We focus on the United States, where the shale gas boom has been on-going for several years, paying particular attention to the Marcellus Shale, where a majority of peer-reviewed study has taken place. Governments, regulatory agencies, industry, and other stakeholders are challenged with responding to these risks, and we discuss policies and practices that have been adopted or considered by these various groups. Adaptive Management, a structured framework for addressing complex environmental issues, is discussed as a way to reduce polarization of important discussions on risk, and to more formally engage science in policy-making, along with other economic, social and value considerations. Data suggests that some risks can be substantially reduced through policy and best practice, but also that significant uncertainty persists regarding other risks. We suggest that monitoring and data collection related to water resource risks be established as part of planning for shale gas development before activity begins, and that resources are allocated to provide for appropriate oversight at various levels of governance.

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Multiple geographic information system (GIS) datasets, including joint orientations from nine bedrock outcrops, inferred faults, topographic lineaments, geophysical data (e.g. regional gravity, magnetic and stress field), 290 pre-gas-drilling groundwater samples (Cl–Br data) and Appalachian Basin brine (ABB) Cl–Br data, have been integrated to assess pre-gas-drilling salinization sources throughout Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania (USA), a focus area of Marcellus Shale gas development. ABB has migrated naturally and preferentially to shallow aquifers along an inferred normal fault and certain topographic lineaments generally trending NNE–SSW, sub-parallel with the maximum regional horizontal compressive stress field (orientated NE–SW). Gravity and magnetic data provide supporting evidence for the inferred faults and for structural control of the topographic lineaments with dominant ABB shallow groundwater signatures. Significant permeability at depth, imparted by the geologic structures and their orientation to the regional stress field, likely facilitates vertical migration of ABB fluids from depth. ABB is known to currently exist within Ordovician through Devonian stratigraphic units, but likely originates from Upper Silurian strata, suggesting significant migration through geologic time, both vertically and laterally. The natural presence of ABB-impacted shallow groundwater has important implications for differentiating gas-drilling-derived brine contamination, in addition to exposing potential vertical migration pathways for gas-drilling impacts.

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Oil and natural gas production in the Western United States has grown rapidly in recent years, and with this industrial expansion, growing environmental concerns have arisen regarding impacts on water supplies and air quality. Recent studies have revealed highly enhanced atmospheric levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from primary emissions in regions of heavy oil and gas development and associated rapid photochemical production of ozone during winter. Here, we present surface and vertical profile observations of VOC from the Uintah Basin Winter Ozone Studies conducted in January?February of 2012 and 2013. These measurements identify highly elevated levels of atmospheric alkane hydrocarbons with enhanced rates of C2?C5 nonmethane hydrocarbon (NMHC) mean mole fractions during temperature inversion events in 2013 at 200?300 times above the regional and seasonal background. Elevated atmospheric NMHC mole fractions coincided with build-up of ambient 1-h ozone to levels exceeding 150 ppbv (parts per billion by volume). The total annual mass flux of C2?C7 VOC was estimated at 194 ± 56 ? 106 kg yr?1, equivalent to the annual VOC emissions of a fleet of ?100 million automobiles. Total annual fugitive emission of the aromatic compounds benzene and toluene, considered air toxics, were estimated at 1.6 ± 0.4 ? 106 and 2.0 ± 0.5 ? 106 kg yr?1, respectively. These observations reveal a strong causal link between oil and gas emissions, accumulation of air toxics, and significant production of ozone in the atmospheric surface layer.

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The rapid proliferation of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing for natural gas mining has raised concerns about the potential for adverse environmental impacts. One specific concern is the radioactivity content of associated ?flowback? wastewater (FBW), which is enhanced with respect to naturally occurring radium (Ra) isotopes. Thus, development and validation of effective methods for analysis of Ra in FBW are critical to appropriate regulatory and safety decision making. Recent government documents have suggested the use of EPA method 903.0 for isotopic Ra determinations. This method has been used effectively to determine Ra levels in drinking water for decades. However, analysis of FBW by this method is questionable because of the remarkably high ionic strength and dissolved solid content observed, particularly in FBW from the Marcellus Shale region. These observations led us to investigate the utility of several common Ra analysis methods using a representative Marcellus Shale FBW sample. Methods examined included wet chemical approaches, such as EPA method 903.0, manganese dioxide (MnO2) preconcentration, and 3M Empore RAD radium disks, and direct measurement techniques such as radon (Rn) emanation and high-purity germanium (HPGe) gamma spectroscopy. Nondestructive HPGe and emanation techniques were effective in determining Ra levels, while wet chemical techniques recovered as little as 1% of 226Ra in the FBW sample studied. Our results question the reliability of wet chemical techniques for the determination of Ra content in Marcellus Shale FBW (because of the remarkably high ionic strength) and suggest that nondestructive approaches are most appropriate for these analyses. For FBW samples with a very high Ra content, large dilutions may allow the use of wet chemical techniques, but detection limit objectives must be considered.

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The development of natural gas and oil from unconventional formations in the United States has grown substantially in recent years and has created governance challenges. The successes and failures of governance efforts in this country serve as important lessons for other nations that have their own unconventional petroleum resources and are beginning to move forward with development, thus calling for a more in-depth examination of the laws governing shale gas development and their implementation. Governance includes both the substance of laws and the activities of institutions that implement and influence laws, and in the case of oil and gas, states are primarily responsible for addressing risks. Nongovernmental actors and industry also work with states to shape and implement regulations and standards. This Policy Analysis introduces the role of various actors in U.S. shale gas governance, explaining why the states are primarily responsible for risk governance, and explores the capacity of states to conduct governance, examining the content of their laws and the strength of their institutions. The Analysis concludes that states are, to a degree, addressing the changing risks of development. Substantial gaps remain in the substance of regulations, however, and many states appear to lack adequate support or policies for training industry in compliance matters, monitoring activity at well sites, issuing violations, and ensuring that the public is aware of inspections and enforcement.

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The rapid rise of shale gas development through horizontal drilling and high volume hydraulic fracturing has expanded the extraction of hydrocarbon resources in the U.S. The rise of shale gas development has triggered an intense public debate regarding the potential environmental and human health effects from hydraulic fracturing. This paper provides a critical review of the potential risks that shale gas operations pose to water resources, with an emphasis on case studies mostly from the U.S. Four potential risks for water resources are identified: (1) the contamination of shallow aquifers with fugitive hydrocarbon gases (i.e., stray gas contamination), which can also potentially lead to the salinization of shallow groundwater through leaking natural gas wells and subsurface flow; (2) the contamination of surface water and shallow groundwater from spills, leaks, and/or the disposal of inadequately treated shale gas wastewater; (3) the accumulation of toxic and radioactive elements in soil or stream sediments near disposal or spill sites; and (4) the overextraction of water resources for high-volume hydraulic fracturing that could induce water shortages or conflicts with other water users, particularly in water-scarce areas. Analysis of published data (through January 2014) reveals evidence for stray gas contamination, surface water impacts in areas of intensive shale gas development, and the accumulation of radium isotopes in some disposal and spill sites. The direct contamination of shallow groundwater from hydraulic fracturing fluids and deep formation waters by hydraulic fracturing itself, however, remains controversial.

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Oil and natural gas exploration and production (E&P) activities generate emissions from diesel engines, compressor stations, condensate tanks, leaks and venting of natural gas, construction of well pads, and well access roads that can negatively impact air quality on both local and regional scales. A mobile, autonomous air quality monitoring laboratory was constructed to collect measurements of ambient concentrations of pollutants associated with oil and natural gas E&P activities. This air-monitoring laboratory was deployed to the Allegheny National Forest (ANF) in northwestern Pennsylvania for a campaign that resulted in the collection of approximately 7 months of data split between three monitoring locations between July 2010 and June 2011. The three monitoring locations were the Kane Experimental Forest (KEF) area in Elk County, which is downwind of the Sackett oilfield; the Bradford Ranger Station (BRS) in McKean County, which is downwind of a large area of historic oil and gas productivity; and the U.S. Forest Service Hearts Content campground (HC) in Warren County, which is in an area relatively unimpacted by oil and gas development and which therefore yielded background pollutant concentrations in the ANF. Concentrations of criteria pollutants ozone and NO2 did not vary significantly from site to site; averages were below National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with oil and natural gas (ethane, propane, butane, pentane) were highly correlated. Applying the conditional probability function (CPF) to the ethane data yielded most probable directions of the sources that were coincident with known location of existing wells and activity. Differences between the two impacted and one background site were difficult to discern, suggesting the that the monitoring laboratory was a great enough distance downwind of active areas to allow for sufficient dispersion with background air such that the localized plumes were not detected. ImplicationsMonitoring of pollutants associated with oil and natural gas exploration and production activity at three sites within the Allegheny National Forest (ANF) showed only slight site-to-site differences even with one site far removed from these activities. However, the impact was evident not in detection of localized plumes but in regional elevated ethane concentrations, as ethane can be considered a tracer species for oil and natural gas activity. The data presented serve as baseline conditions for evaluation of impacts from future development of Marcellus or Utica shale gas reserves.

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Winter maximum daily 8-hour average (MDA8) ozone concentrations in the Upper Green River Basin, Wyoming (UGRBWY) and the Uintah Basin, Utah (UBUT) have frequently exceeded 100 ppb in January, February and March, in the past few years. Such levels are well above the U.S. air quality standard of 75 ppb. In these two remote basins in the Rockies, local ozone precursor emissions result from intense oil and gas extraction activities that release methane, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) to the atmosphere. These emissions become trapped beneath a stable and shallow (~50–200 m) boundary layer maintained in low wind conditions. Wintertime surface ozone formation conditions are more likely in the UBUT than in the UGRBWY as the topography of the UBUT is an enclosed basin whereas the UGRBWY is open on its southern perimeter thus allowing for more air turnover. With snow-covered ground, high ozone events regularly begin in mid-December and last into early March in the UBUT whereas they usually do not begin in earnest until about a month later in the UGRBWY and may persist until mid-March. Winters without snow cover and the accompanying cold pool meteorological conditions do not experience high ozone events in either basin. For nine years with ozone observations in the UGRBWY (2005–2013) and four in the UBUT (2010–2013), all years with adequate (≥6 inches) and persistent snow cover, experienced days with ozone values ≥75 ppb except in 2012 in the UGRBWY when persistent high wind (>5 m/s) conditions were prevalent. Year to year differences in the occurrences of high ozone episodes appear to be driven primarily by differing meteorological conditions rather than by variations in ozone precursor levels.

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Summary There is a push to increase production of unconventional gas in Australia, which would intensify the use of the controversial technique of hydraulic fracturing. The uncertainties surrounding the health implications of unconventional gas, when considered together with doubts surrounding its greenhouse gas profile and cost, weigh heavily against proceeding with proposed future developments. The health and environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing have been the source of widespread public concern. A review of available literature shows a considerable degree of uncertainty, but an emerging consensus about the main risks. Gas is often claimed to be a less climate-damaging alternative to coal; however, this is called into question by the fugitive emissions produced by unconventional gas extraction and the consequences of its export. While the health effects associated with fracturing chemicals have attracted considerable public attention, risks posed by wastewater, community disruption and the interaction between exposures are of also of concern. The health burdens of unconventional gas are likely to fall disproportionately on rural communities, the young and the elderly. While the health and environmental risks and benefits must be compared with other energy choices, coal provides a poor benchmark.

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The oil and gas extraction industry is rapidly growing due to horizontal drilling and high volume hydraulic fracturing (HVHF). This growth has provided new jobs and economic stimulus. The industry occupational fatality rate is 2.5 times higher than the construction industry and 7 times higher than general industry; however injury rates are lower than the construction industry, suggesting injuries are not being reported. Some workers are exposed to crystalline silica at hazardous levels, above occupational health standards. Other hazards (particulate, benzene, noise, radiation) exist. In this article, we review occupational fatality and injury rate data; discuss research looking at root causes of fatal injuries and hazardous exposures; review interventions aimed at improving occupational health and safety; and discuss information gaps and areas of needed research. We also describe Wyoming efforts to improve occupational safety in this industry, as a case example. Am. J. Ind. Med. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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This paper investigates the beliefs and framing strategies of interest groups during a period of policy change and the factors explaining policy change. We develop propositions to explore questions concerning policy change primarily from the advocacy coalition framework as well as from other theorie. The propositions are tested by examining the promulgation of a Colorado regulation requiring the disclosure of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing. Using coded data of documents published by organizations involved in the rulemaking process, we find divergence between industry and environmental groups on their beliefs concerning hydraulic fracturing, as well as their portraying themselves and each other as heroes, victims, and villains, but some convergence on their more specific beliefs concerning disclosure of chemicals. Interviews point to the importance of policy entrepreneurs, timing, a negotiated agreement, and learning for explaining policy change. The findings provide both theoretical and methodological insights into how and why policy changes.

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In November 2011, a M5.0 earthquake occurred less than a day before a M5.7 earthquake near Prague, Oklahoma, which may have promoted failure of the mainshock and thousands of aftershocks along the Wilzetta fault, including a M5.0 aftershock. The M5.0 foreshock occurred in close proximity to active fluid injection wells; fluid injection can cause a buildup of pore fluid pressure, decrease the fault strength, and may induce earthquakes. Keranen et al. [] links the M5.0 foreshock with fluid injection, but the relationship between the foreshock and successive events has not been investigated. Here we examine the role of coseismic Coulomb stress transfer on earthquakes that follow the M5.0 foreshock, including the M5.7 mainshock. We resolve the static Coulomb stress change onto the focal mechanism nodal plane that is most consistent with the rupture geometry of the three M ≥ 5.0 earthquakes, as well as specified receiver fault planes that reflect the regional stress orientation. We find that Coulomb stress is increased, e.g., fault failure is promoted, on the nodal planes of ~60% of the events that have focal mechanism solutions, and more specifically, that the M5.0 foreshock promoted failure on the rupture plane of the M5.7 mainshock. We test our results over a range of effective coefficient of friction values. Hence, we argue that the M5.0 foreshock, induced by fluid injection, potentially triggered a cascading failure of earthquakes along the complex Wilzetta fault system.

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The rapid rise in natural gas extraction using hydraulic fracturing increases the potential for contamination of surface and ground water from chemicals used throughout the process. Hundreds of products containing more than 750 chemicals and components are potentially used throughout the extraction process, including more than 100 known or suspected endocrine-disrupting chemicals. We hypothesized that a selected subset of chemicals used in natural gas drilling operations and also surface and ground water samples collected in a drilling-dense region of Garfield County, Colorado, would exhibit estrogen and androgen receptor activities. Water samples were collected, solid-phase extracted, and measured for estrogen and androgen receptor activities using reporter gene assays in human cell lines. Of the 39 unique water samples, 89%, 41%, 12%, and 46% exhibited estrogenic, antiestrogenic, androgenic, and antiandrogenic activities, respectively. Testing of a subset of natural gas drilling chemicals revealed novel antiestrogenic, novel antiandrogenic, and limited estrogenic activities. The Colorado River, the drainage basin for this region, exhibited moderate levels of estrogenic, antiestrogenic, and antiandrogenic activities, suggesting that higher localized activity at sites with known natural gas–related spills surrounding the river might be contributing to the multiple receptor activities observed in this water source. The majority of water samples collected from sites in a drilling-dense region of Colorado exhibited more estrogenic, antiestrogenic, or antiandrogenic activities than reference sites with limited nearby drilling operations. Our data suggest that natural gas drilling operations may result in elevated endocrine-disrupting chemical activity in surface and ground water., AffiliationsDepartment of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health and Division of Biological Sciences (C.D.K., A.M.H., S.C.N.), University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211; US Geological Survey (D.E.T.), Columbia Environmental Research Center, Columbia, Missouri 65201; and Departments of Statistics and Health Management and Informatics (J.W.D.), University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211

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In this exploratory analysis, we survey Susquehanna River basin stakeholders regarding the environmental, social, and economic impacts of natural gas hydraulic fracturing in the Marcellus Region. Our survey involved collecting data based on four categories: economic opportunity, protection of health and safety, preserving communities, and achieving energy security. We separated responses on a cross-sector basis in order to differentiate between the nonprofit, government, and private sectors. Overall, responses by the three sectors are relatively similar. Of the 21 questions measured by a 5-point Likert-type scale (with 5 being the highest priority), 17 questions measure above 3 for all three sectors. With hydraulic fracturing in the Marcellus Region in the early stages of a typical energy “boom-bust” cycle, the results of this survey provide baseline data to compare with stakeholder attitudes at later stages of the cycle.

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Finewood and Stroup (J Contemp Water Res Educ 147(1), 72–79, 2012) observe that as hydraulic fracturing for natural gas spreads across the USA, neoliberal ideologies normalize fracking’s potential dangers, including impacts to water and more general environmental quality. Theoretical observations like these must be tested empirically. I do so here, analyzing data from extensive fieldwork in Pennsylvania’s Bradford, Susquehanna, and Washington counties. Drawing on comparative mixed method data from fieldwork in northeastern Pennsylvania’s ‘Endless Mountains’ region and the Pittsburgh area, I compare how small-scale farmers perceive and sometimes enact elements of market-based, neoliberal rationality when assessing hydrofracking’s community, environmental, and economic outcomes. This paper explores why this matters sociologically, given small-scale farmers’ roles as land-use decision-makers, stewards of related natural resource development, and marginalized producers with limited access to market shares and subsidies. In counties like Bradford and Washington, impacts of fracking small-scale farmers have been under-studied. To address that gap, I examine impacts on farmers operating around natural gas development and within neoliberal economic structures. Analyzing extensive interview and ethnographic data, the following research questions are addressed: (1) Among small-scale farmers impacted by hydraulic fracturing, what evidence exists that neoliberal logic helps farmers normalize fracking? and (2) How does normalization interact with decisions to sign natural gas leases? My findings indicate that many farmers utilize neoliberal logic when assessing impacts of hydraulic fracturing and shale gas development, particularly as rapid energy development relates to their land-use decisions. Neoliberal normalization of hydraulic fracturing emerges most saliently regarding environmental outcomes and economic development. I connect this to small-scale farmers’ economic vulnerability and the limited agency in dictating land use near their farms.

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Russian energy policy is usually considered in the regional context – in terms of its energy power capability and strength vis-à-vis the EU and the post-Soviet states. This study shows that in order to understand Russia's energy power, even in the regional context of its relations with the EU, it is necessary to consider the impact of international changes in the energy sector. The oil and gas shale “revolutions” represent such a global factor of influence. Even if their consequences are not yet clear, they have already become an important challenge for Russian energy policy and power. This policy-oriented article, guided by neoclassical realism, analyzes what the shale “revolutions” mean for Russia's energy policy and its power capabilities vis-à-vis the EU, how the Russian political elite perceive this development and how Russia reacts to it. In this context, Russian power capabilities look more moderate.

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Advances in directional drilling and hydraulic fracturing have sparked a natural gas boom from shale formations in the United States. Regulators face a rapidly changing industry comprised of hundreds of players, operating tens of thousands of wells across 30 states. They are often constrained in their efforts to respond by budget cuts, a brain drain to industry, regulations designed for conventional gas developments, insufficient information, and deeply polarized debates about hydraulic fracturing and its regulation. As a result, shale gas governance remains a halting patchwork of rules, undermining opportunities to effectively characterize and mitigate development risk. The situation is dynamic, with research and incremental regulatory advances underway. Into this mix, we offer the CO/RE framework ? characterization of risk, optimization of mitigation strategies, regulation, and enforcement ? to design tailored governance strategies. We then apply CO/RE to three types of shale gas risks, to illustrate its potential utility to regulators.

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Global demand for energy has increased by more than 50 percent in the last half-century, and a similar increase is projected by 2030. This demand will increasingly be met with alternative and unconventional energy sources. Development of these resources causes disturbances that strongly impact terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The Marcellus Shale gas play covers more than 160,934 km2 in an area that provides drinking water for over 22 million people in several of the largest metropolitan areas in the United States (e.g. New York City, Washington DC, Philadelphia & Pittsburgh). Here we created probability surfaces representing development potential of wind and shale gas for portions of six states in the Central Appalachians. We used these predictions and published projections to model future energy build-out scenarios to quantify future potential impacts on surface drinking water. Our analysis predicts up to 106,004 new wells and 10,798 new wind turbines resulting up to 535,023 ha of impervious surface (3% of the study area) and upwards of 447,134 ha of impacted forest (2% of the study area). In light of this new energy future, mitigating the impacts of energy development will be one of the major challenges in the coming decades.