Repository for Oil and Gas Energy Research (ROGER)

Abstract:
Hydraulic fracturing, a.k.a., fracking, requires intense truck trips to transport a large volume of water within a narrow time window, posing a safety threat to other road users. This paper examines how fracking-related trucking affects fatal crashes in North Dakota using the exogenous timing of fracking operations near a road segment. The results show that an additional post-fracking well within six miles of a road segment led to 8% more fatal crashes and 7.1% higher per-capita costs in accidents. Transport activities at wells’ other operational stages did not affect fatal crashes. These additional crashes emerged mainly from collisions involving trucks, resulting from a higher traffic volume rather than a higher crash rate and occurring during daytime rush hours rather than during the rest of the day. Alcohol-involved crash drivers increased most likely due to their vulnerability to heavier fracking-induced traffic rather than more alcohol-involved truck drivers near the fracking sites.

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Unconventional oil and gas (UOG) extraction (fracking) has increased in the United States, as well as interest in the associated risks and benefits. This study’s purpose was to qualitatively examine residents’ perceptions about UOG development in their community. Fifteen interviewees involving residents of Garfield County, Colorado, a drilling-dense region, were transcribed and analyzed. The study found six themes: (1) health concerns, both human and animal, (2) power struggles between government and industry/between industry and residents, and (3) perception and some acceptance of increased risk. Less common themes were (4) reliance on science to accurately determine risk, (5) frustration with potential threat and loss of power, and (6) traffic and safety concerns. Community perceptions of UOG development are complex, and understanding the position of community members can support the need for additional public health research and impact assessments regarding community exposures from UOG drilling operation exposures.

Abstract:
There is increasing interest in beneficial uses of large volumes of wastewater co-produced with oil and gas extraction (produced water, PW) because of water scarcity, potential subsurface disposal limitations, and regional linkages to induced seismicity. Here we quantified PW volumes relative to water demand in different sectors and PW quality relative to treatment and reuse options for the major U.S. shale oil and gas plays. PW volumes from these plays totaled ~600 billion liters (BL, 160 billion gallons, Bgal) in 2017. One year of PW is equal to ~60% of one day of freshwater use in the U.S. For these plays, the total irrigation demand exceeded PW volumes by ~5× whereas municipal demand exceeded PW by ~2×. If PW is reused for hydraulic fracturing (HF) within the energy sector, there would be no excess PW in about half of the plays because HF water demand exceeds PW volumes in those plays. PW quality can be highly saline with median total dissolved solids up to 255 g/L in the Bakken play, ~7× seawater. Intensive water treatment required for PW from most unconventional plays would further reduce PW volumes by at least 2×. Desalination would also result in large volumes of salt concentrates, equivalent to ~3000 Olympic swimming pools in the Permian Delaware Basin in 2017. While water demands outside the energy sector could accommodate PW volumes, much lower PW volumes relative to water demand in most regions would not substantially alleviate water scarcity. However, large projected PW volumes relative to HF water demand over the life of the play in the Permian Delaware Basin may provide a substantial new water source for beneficial use in the future. Large knowledge gaps in PW quality, lack of appropriate regulations, and economic factors currently preclude beneficial uses outside the energy sector in most regions.

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Hydraulic fracturing of shale gas extraction generates numerous flowback and produced water (FPW), which will cause huge pollution if not properly treated. Gravity-driven membrane with economic advantages was applied as a pretreatment for desalinating this wastewater. The effects of membrane materials (polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polyvinylchloride (PVC)) with different mean pore sizes, porosities, contact angles, and pure water permeabilities and hydrostatic pressures (40 and 120 mbar) were investigated. The setups were operated for 90 days and the fluxes stabilized at about 0.87–1.00 L/(m2 h). PVDF membranes with higher price, had 6 % higher stable fluxes than PVC membranes, and the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) contents in fouling layer of PVDF membranes were 10 %–20 % lower than those of PVC membranes. At higher pressures, the stable fluxes increased by only 8 %, but the total resistances increased by nearly 180 %, and there were more EPS, dissolved organic carbon, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl− and NO3− on the fouling layer at 120 mbar. A denser cake layer was formed at a higher hydrostatic pressure, as observed by a scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive spectroscopy. Membrane properties and pressures had no significant effect on permeate quality (p > 0.05).

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New technologies and increasing energy demand have contributed to rapid expansion of unconventional oil and gas development in the U.S. in the past two decades. Quantifying the effects of energy infrastructure on land cover and wildlife habitat is essential for informing land-use policy, developing wildlife conservation strategies, and projecting impacts of future development. The greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; GrSG) is a species of concern in sagebrush ecosystems of the western U.S. and Canada and the focus of widespread conservation and management efforts. Increasing energy development within GrSG range has prompted the need to quantify and predict impacts of energy infrastructure on their habitat and populations. We mapped the annual distribution, surface type, and activity level of energy and non-energy infrastructure in the Parachute-Piceance-Roan (PPR), a small, peripheral greater sage-grouse population in Colorado with expanding oil and gas development, from 2005 to 2015. During that time, the footprint of energy infrastructure more than doubled to 3,275 ha (+108.6%), including 195 new well pads, 930 ha of new pipelines, and 230 km of new roads. In contrast, non-energy infrastructure decreased to 532 ha (−8.3%). The majority of energy infrastructure present each year (77–84%) was supporting infrastructure (i.e. facilities, roads, pipelines) rather than well pads, with an average of 2.24 ± 0.52 SE ha of supporting infrastructure per ha of well pad. Pipelines comprised 74–80% of reclaimed surface and roads comprised 54–69% of disturbed surface across years. By 2015, anthropogenic infrastructure covered 2.70% of occupied range and 2.93% of GrSG habitat, and energy infrastructure covered 2.50% and 10.79% of two priority habitat management area zones in the PPR. Three land cover classes most affected by energy infrastructure were also those strongly selected by GrSG. Topographic constraints appear to concentrate energy infrastructure in areas with gentler topography that also have the highest GrSG use. Together, these patterns suggest that future energy development will cause substantial additional loss and modification of GrSG habitat in the PPR. Our findings are valuable for assessing surface disturbance caps for land-use management and projections of energy infrastructure effects on wildlife habitat in this and other expanding oil and gas fields.

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Kondash et al. provide a valuable contribution to our understanding of water consumption and wastewater production from oil and gas production using hydraulic fracturing. Unfortunately, their claim that the water intensity of energy production using hydraulic fracturing has increased in all regions is incorrect. More comprehensive data show that, while the water intensity of production may have increased in regions such as the Permian basin, it has decreased by 74% in the Marcellus and by 19% in the Eagle Ford region. This error likely stems from an improper method for estimating energy production from wells: The authors use the median well to represent regional production, which systematically underestimates aggregate production volumes. Across all regions, aggregate data suggest that the water intensity of oil and natural gas production using hydraulic fracturing has increased by 19%. There also appears to be an error in estimates for water consumption in the Permian basin. Kondash et al. incorrectly claim that water intensity has increased in all regions, and several data errors are apparent. Kondash et al. incorrectly claim that water intensity has increased in all regions, and several data errors are apparent.

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Isotopic evidence from ice cores indicates that preindustrial-era geological methane emissions were lower than previously thought, suggesting that present-day emissions of methane from fossil fuels are underestimated.

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Salinization of global freshwater resources is a concerning health and economic issue of the 21st century and requires serious management and study to understand how, and by what mechanism, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is changing in major watersheds. Oil and gas (O&G) produced water is a complex and saline (10–300 g/L TDS) wastewater often disposed to surface waters post-treatment. However, in western U.S. states, beneficial use of minimally treated O&G produced water discharged to ephemeral streams is permitted through the EPA National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) for agriculture and wildlife propagation. In a remote Wyoming study region, beneficial use of O&G NPDES effluents annually contributes 13 billion L of water to surface water resources. The primary O&G TDS constituents are sulfate and sodium followed by chloride and calcium. Significant TDS increases from 2013 to 2016 in a large perennial river (River C) impacted by O&G effluent disposal, slight TDS increases in a perennial river (River B) and chronically elevated TDS (upwards of 2500 mg/L) in a smaller tributary (Tributary A) comprised mainly of O&G effluents led to an investigation of O&G impacts to surface waters in the region. Chloride-normalized metal ratios such as Br/Cl and δ2H and δ18O distinguished evaporation as the mechanism for increasing TDS derived from O&G on Tributary A, which is causing O&G effluents that meet NPDES regulations to not only exceed outfall regulations downstream where it is beneficially used mainly for irrigation and drinking water but also exceed aquatic life and livestock recommended limits. 87Sr/86Sr and δ34SSO4 suggested minor impacts from O&G TDS loading on River C but also support an additional salinity source, such as streambed geological controls, the cause of significantly increasing TDS. While lithium isotopes provided insight into the O&G effluent origin (δ7Li ranged 9–10‰) and water-sediment interactions along O&G effluent streams, they did not function as distinct salinity tracers in the larger downstream rivers. This study suggests a multi-isotope (87Sr/86Sr and δ34SSO4) approach is often necessary for fingerprinting salinization sources and determining best management practices because multiple salinity sources and environmental mechanisms may need to be identified to protect water quality.

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Technologies such as hydraulic fracturing and wastewater injection can elicit strong and sometimes diverging reactions among the public, particularly when there is uncertainty about the associated risks. Understanding how people are weighing potential benefits in the context of these risks can help to address some of the challenges associated with people’s responses, such as community conflict and social disruption—especially when multiple risks intersect, as in the case of induced seismicity. As a relatively new phenomenon, perceived risk of induced seismicity remains an underexplored area in hazards and risk analysis research. Prior work on hydraulic fracturing has revealed that a complex variety of factors influences how the public in a given area perceives the overall impacts, risks, and value of oil and gas operations. This article focuses on findings derived from in-depth interviews and informal conversations with 36 Oklahomans as part of a larger study of social responses to induced seismicity in that state and Colorado. These findings center around participants’ reported concerns, problems, benefits, and new opportunities associated with oil and gas development, including the ways in which participants weigh the costs and benefits of oil and gas development activities—particularly hydraulic fracturing—within the context of induced seismicity.

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The number of horizontally drilled shale oil and gas wells in the United States has increased from nearly 28,000 in 2007 to nearly 127,000 in 2017, and research has suggested the potential for the development of shale resources to affect nearby stream ecosystems. However, the ability to generalize current studies is limited by the small geographic scope as well as limited breadth and integration of measured chemical and biological indicators parameters. This study tested the hypothesis that a quantifiable, significant relationship exists between the density of oil and gas (OG) development, increasing stream water concentrations of known geochemical tracers of OG extraction, and the composition of benthic macroinvertebrate and microbial communities. Twenty-five headwater streams that drain lands across a gradient of shale gas development intensity were sampled. Our strategy included comprehensive measurements across multiple seasons of sampling to account for temporal variability of geochemical parameters, including known shale OG geochemical tracers, and microbial and benthic macroinvertebrate communities. No significant relationships were found between the intensity of OG development, shale OG geochemical tracers, or benthic macroinvertebrate or microbial community composition, whereas significant seasonal differences in stream chemistry were observed. These results highlight the importance of considering spatial and temporal variability in stream chemistry and biota and not only the presence of anthropogenic activities in a watershed. This comprehensive, integrated study of geochemical and biological variability of headwater streams in watersheds undergoing OG development provides a robust framework for examining the effects of energy development at a regional scale.

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Production of oil and natural gas in North America is at an all-time high due to the development and use of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Methane emissions associated with this industrial activity are a concern because of the contribution to climate radiative forcing. We present new measurements from the space-based TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) launched in 2017 that show methane enhancements over production regions in the United States. In the Uintah Basin in Utah, TROPOMI methane columns correlated with in-situ measurements, and the highest columns were observed over the deepest parts of the basin, consistent with the accumulation of emissions underneath inversions. In the Permian Basin in Texas and New Mexico, methane columns showed maxima over regions with the highest natural gas production and were correlated with nitrogen-dioxide columns at a ratio that is consistent with results from in-situ airborne measurements. The improved detail provided by TROPOMI will likely enable the timely monitoring from space of methane emissions associated with oil and natural gas production.

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Recently, several seminal works have been drawing attention to the revolution of shale gas production technology of the USA, the impact of shale gas on energy sectors, as well as the influences of shale gas on macroeconomic variables of employment, economic growth, etc. Nevertheless, one may claim that two gaps appear in literature. The first gap is the absence of an econometric study estimating the effect of shale oil/gas on national economies. The more considerable second gap is the absence of econometric analyses revealing the impulses of shale gas on local economies. Therefore, this paper observes the possible causalities between the shale gas and local gross domestic product (GDP) employing quarterly data covering the period 2007–2016 for 12 states in the US. After performing the tests of cross-sectional dependence, heterogeneity, stationarity, and cointegration, the paper conducts the panel Granger causality analyses. The empirical findings depict that (i) there is available unidirectional relationship from local shale gas production to local GDP in Colorado, Ohio, and West Virginia; (ii) there occurs an impulse from GDP to local shale gas production for Louisiana, North Dakota, and Oklahoma; (iii) a bidirectional causality coexists between local shale gas production and GDP in Arkansas, California, and Texas; and (iv) there exists no association between local GDP and local shale gas extraction in Montana, New Mexico, and Wyoming.

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Purpose of ReviewPolluting industries are more likely to be located in low-income communities of color who also experience greater social stressors that may make them more vulnerable than others to the health impacts of toxic chemical exposures. We describe recent developments in assessing pollutant exposures and health threats posed by industrial facilities using or releasing synthetic chemicals to nearby communities in the U.S.Recent FindingsMore people are living near oil and gas development due to the expansion of unconventional extraction techniques as well as near industrial animal operations, both with suggestive evidence of increased exposure to hazardous pollutants and adverse health effects. Legacy contamination continues to adversely impact a new generation of residents in fenceline communities, with recent studies documenting exposures to toxic metals and poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Researchers are also giving consideration to acute exposures resulting from inadvertent industrial chemical releases, including those resulting from extreme weather events linked to climate change. Natural experiments of industrial closures or cleanups provide compelling evidence that exposures from industry harm the health of nearby residents.SummaryNew and legacy industries, coupled with climate change, present unique health risks to communities living near industry due to the release of toxic chemicals. Cumulative impacts from multiple stressors faced by environmental justice communities may amplify these adverse effects.

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Rural places in the United States increasingly face seemingly intractable problems—perhaps the most severe of these is the ‘rural mortality penalty’ wherein rural places have higher mortality rates than suburban and urban places. The boom in unconventional oil and gas production in the mid-2000s brought with it the promise of rural renewal, and the potential to address rural America’s long-standing development challenges. In this analysis, we ask how the oil and gas boom has impacted the rural mortality penalty. Our results imply that oil and gas development will not improve or damage mortality rates. Implications for rural populations are discussed. Keywords: Rural mortality penalty; oil and gas development; multilevel model

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In their study "Assessing Agreement in Exposure Classification between Proximity-Based Metrics and Air Monitoring Data in Epidemiology Studies of Unconventional Resource Development" [...].

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The worldwide expansion of shale gas production and increased use of hydraulic fracturing have raised public concerns about safety and risks of groundwater resources in shale gas extraction areas. China has the largest shale gas resources in the world, most of which are located in the Sichuan Basin. Shale gas extraction in the Sichuan Basin has been increasing rapidly in recent years. However, the potential impact on shallow groundwater quality has not yet been systematically investigated. In order to evaluate the possible impact of shale gas extraction on groundwater quality, we present, for the first time, the hydrochemistry and Sr isotopic data of shallow groundwater, as well as flowback and produced water (FP water) in the Changning shale gas field in Sichuan Basin, one of the major shale gas fields in China. The Changning FP water is characterized by high salinity (TDS of 13,100–53,500 mg/L), Br/Cl (2.76 × 10−3) and 87Sr/86Sr (0.71849), which are distinguished from the produced waters from nearby conventional gas fields with higher Br/Cl (4.5 × 10−3) and lower 87Sr/86Sr (0.70830–0.71235). The shallow groundwater samples were collected from a Triassic karst aquifer in both active and nonactive shale gas extraction areas. They are dominated by low salinity (TDS of 145–1100 mg/L), Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 types water, which are common in carbonate karst aquifers. No statistical difference of the groundwater quality was observed between samples collected in active versus nonactive shale gas extraction areas. Out of 66 analyzed groundwater, three groundwater samples showed relatively higher salinity above the background level, with low 87Sr/86Sr (0.70824–0.7110) and Br/Cl (0.5–1.8 × 10−3) ratios relatively to FP water, excluding the possibility of contamination from FP water. None of the groundwater samples had detected volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The integration of geochemical and statistical analysis shows no direct evidence of groundwater contamination caused by shale gas development.

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Background Fossil fuel extraction from deep shale rock formations using new drilling technologies such as hydraulic fracturing, has rapidly increased in the Unites States (U.S.) over the past decade. Increases in nonlocal, specialized workers to meet the demands of this complex industry have been suggested to influence rates of sexually transmitted infections (STI) in counties with shale drilling activity; these associations may vary geographically. In this multi-region analysis, we examine the associations between shale drilling activity and rates of three reportable STI in Colorado, North Dakota, and Texas, states with active shale drilling. Methods We obtained annual reported rates of chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), number of active shale wells from Enverus (formerly known as DrillingInfo), and sociodemographic covariates from the U.S. Census Bureau. We used multivariable mixed-effects Poisson regression modeling to estimate rate ratios (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) adjusted for potential confounders and secular trends. Results In Texas, county-years with high drilling activity had 10% increased rates of chlamydia (RR=1.10; 95% CI=1.04-1.17) and 15% increased rates of gonorrhea (RR=1.15; 95% CI = 1.04-1.28), compared to county-years with no drilling. No statistically significant associations were reported for syphilis or for any STIs in Colorado or North Dakota. Conclusions Associations between shale drilling and chlamydia and gonorrhea in Texas may reflect increased risk in areas with higher drilling activity and a greater number of major metropolitan areas. Inter-state differences highlight the need for local epidemiology to prioritize community health policies.

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Hydraulic fracturing (HF), or “fracking,” is the driving force behind the “shale gas revolution,” completely transforming the United States energy industry over the last two decades. HF requires that 4–6 million gallons per well (15,000–24,000 m3/well) of water be pumped underground to stimulate the release of entrapped hydrocarbons from unconventional (i.e., shale or carbonate) formations. Estimated U.S. production volumes exceed 150 billion gallons/year across the industry from unconventional wells alone and are projected to grow for at least another two decades. Concerns over the environmental impact from accidental or incidental release of produced water from HF wells (“U-PW”), along with evolving regulatory and economic drivers, has spurred great interest in technological innovation to enhance U-PW recycling and reuse. In this review, we analyze U-PW quantity and composition based on the latest U.S. Geographical Survey data, identify key contamination metrics useful in tracking water quality improvement in the context of HF operations, and suggest “fit-for-purpose treatment” to enhance cost-effective regulatory compliance, water recovery/reuse, and resource valorization. Drawing on industrial practice and technoeconomic constraints, we further assess the challenges associated with U-PW treatment for onshore U.S. operations. Presented are opportunities for targeted end-uses of treated U-PW. We highlight emerging technologies that may enhance cost-effective U-PW management as HF activities grow and evolve in the coming decades.

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It is a general understanding that unconventional oil is petroleum-extracted and processed into petroleum products using unconventional means. The recent growth in the United States (US) shale oil production and the lack of refinery in Canada built for heavy crude processes have resulted in a significant increase in U.S imports of unconventional oil since 2018. This has increased the risk of incidents and catastrophic emergencies during the transportation of unconventional oils using transmission pipelines and train rails. A great deal of effort has been made to address the remediation of contaminated soil/sediment following the traditional oil spills. However, spill response and clean-up techniques (e.g., oil recuperation, soil-sediment-water treatments) showed slow and inefficient performance when it came to unconventional oil, bringing larger associated environmental impacts in need of investigation. To the best of our knowledge, there is no coherent review available on the biodegradability of unconventional oil, including bitumen and Bakken oil. Hence, in view of the insufficient information and contrasting results obtained on the remediation of petroleum, this review is an attempt to fill the gap by presenting the collective understanding and critical analysis of the literature on bioremediation of products from the oil sand and shale (e.g., Dilbit and Bakken oil). This can help evaluate the different aspects of hydrocarbon biodegradation and identify the knowledge gaps in the literature.

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In the United States, onshore oil and gas extraction operations generate an estimated 900 billion gallons of produced water annually, making it the largest waste stream associated with upstream development of petroleum hydrocarbons. Management and disposal practices of produced water vary from deep well injection to reuse of produced water in agricultural settings. However, there is relatively little information with regard to the chemical or toxicological characteristics of produced water. A comprehensive literature review was performed, screening nearly 16,000 published articles, and identifying 129 papers that included data on chemicals detected in produced water. Searches for information on the potential ecotoxicological or mammalian toxicity of these chemicals revealed that the majority (56%) of these compounds have not been a subject of safety evaluation or mechanistic toxicology studies and 86% lack data to be used to complete a risk assessment, which underscores the lack of toxicological information for the majority of chemical constituents in produced water. The objective of this study was to develop a framework to identify potential constituents of concern in produced water, based on available and predicted toxicological hazard data, to prioritize these chemicals for monitoring, treatment, and research. In order to integrate available evidence to address gaps in toxicological hazard on the chemicals in produced water, we have catalogued available information from ecological toxicity studies, toxicity screening databases, and predicted toxicity values. A Toxicological Priority Index (ToxPi) approach was applied to integrate these various data sources. This research will inform stakeholders and decision-makers on the potential hazards in produced water. In addition, this work presents a method to prioritize compounds that, based on hazard and potential exposure, may be considered during various produced water reuse strategies to reduce possible human health risks and environmental impacts.

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Abstract. Exposure to hydraulic fracturing fluid in drinking water increases the risk of many adverse health outcomes. Unfortunately, most individuals and rese

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Shale-gas production could impact freshwater quality through contamination of the physical and chemical habitat (e.g., fracturing fluids, untreated or treated effluent) or development-related impacts. Despite environmental concerns, information is lacking to support biomonitoring as a diagnostic tool to assess impacts of shale-gas production. We characterized water quality and biota in areas of high shale gas potential (Early Carboniferous bedrock in New Brunswick, Canada) and surrounding geologic areas, and we assessed patterns in benthic macroinvertebrate (BMI) and fish assemblages. Early Carboniferous stations differed primarily based on water chemistry, and BMI were associated with a gradient in conductivity and temperature across geologic classes. Concordance analysis indicated similar classification of stations by both organism groups, though fish were more related to turbidity and nutrients. Concordance among fish and BMI was strongest at high conductivity, Early Carboniferous stations. These results suggest that geology plays a strong role in driving abiotic habitats and biotic communities of streams, even at small spatial scales. Furthermore, they suggest BMI and fish can provide complementary information for biomonitoring in shale-gas development areas, with BMI responding to increased ion concentrations from surface water contamination, and fish responding to changes in nutrients and turbidity resulting from development.

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The recent publication, “Assessing Agreement in Exposure Classification between Proximity-Based Metrics and Air Monitoring Data in Epidemiology Studies of Unconventional Resource Development” by Hess et al [...]

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The science on the effects of global climate change and air pollution on morbidity and mortality is clear and debate now centres around the scale and precise contributions of particular pollutants. Sufficient data existed in recent decades to support the adoption of precautionary public health policies relating to fossil fuels including shale exploration. Yet air quality and related public health impacts linked to ethical and environmental justice elements are often marginalized or missing in planning and associated decision making. Industry and government policies and practices, laws and planning regulations lagged well behind the science in the United Kingdom. This paper explores the reasons for this and what shaped some of those policies. Why did shale gas policies in England fail to fully address public health priorities and neglect ethical and environmental justice concerns. To answer this question, an interdisciplinary analysis is needed informed by a theoretical framework of how air pollution and climate change are largely discounted in the complex realpolitik of policy and regulation for shale gas development in England. Sources, including official government, regulatory and planning documents, as well as industry and scientific publications are examined and benchmarked against the science and ethical and environmental justice criteria. Further, our typology illustrates how the process works drawing on an analysis of official policy documents and statements on planning and regulatory oversight of shale exploration in England, and material from industry and their consultants relating to proposed shale oil and gas development. Currently the oil, gas and chemical industries in England continue to dominate and influence energy and feedstock-related policy making to the detriment of ethical and environmental justice decision making with significant consequences for public health.

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Since 2009, unconventional natural gas development (UNGD) has significantly increased in Appalachia’s Marcellus Shale formation. Elevations of fine particulate matter <2.5 µm (PM2.5), have been documented in areas surrounding drilling operations during well stimulation. Furthermore, many communities are experiencing increased industrial activities and probable UNGD air pollutant exposures. Recent studies have associated UNGD emissions with health effects based on distances from well pads. In this study, PM2.5 filter samples were collected on an active gas well pad in Morgantown, West Virginia, and three locations downwind during hydraulic stimulation. Fine particulate samples were analyzed for major and trace elements. An experimental source identification model was developed to determine which elements appeared to be traceable downwind of the UNGD site and whether these elements corresponded to PM2.5 measurements. Results suggest that 1) magnesium may be useful for detecting the reach of UNGD point source emissions, 2) complex surface topographic and meteorological conditions in the Marcellus Shale region could be modeled and confounding sources discounted, and 3) well pad emissions may be measurable at distances of at least 7 km. If shown to be more widely applicable, future tracer studies could enhance epidemiological studies showing health effects of UNGD-associated emissions at ≥15 km.

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At the core of the hydraulic fracturing (fracking) debate is the level of perceived risk involved with extractive industries, such as the release of toxic and carcinogenic chemicals, increased population growth, and truck traffic. However, industry supporters of fracking acclaim the benefits of oil and gas drilling, such as energy independence and economic gains. In this study, we examine the perceived impacts of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) on community health and well-being based on interviews with anti-fracking activists in Denton, Texas who were active in the “anti-fracking” community organization, Frack Free Denton (FFD). Emergent from the interviews, we discuss the socio-psychological stressors these community members experienced following the introduction of hydraulic fracturing in the region. Some of the major socio-psychological impacts included perceived physical health risks through anxiety surrounding toxins and carcinogens that may be released through this process. Participants also discussed stress put on community relations, primarily through the form of an “us vs. them” mentality related to the support for, or opposition to, fracking in the community. Moreover, we found anxiety and stress surrounding trust in community members’ relationships with governing bodies, such as the federal government, state government, and local governments. This research will allow for a more comprehensive understanding of how fracking can impact the socio-psychological well-being of the community.

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In this interview and case study, we examine the Bakken oil shale boom's effect on union density in western North Dakota to test if high labor demands assist unions in expanding their membership and winning concessions. Using a key informant approach, we find that unions took advantage of the high demand for labor, but this growth encountered important barriers, including a lack of an activist approach, the organization of work, and a political climate in which labor's interests are perceived to oppose the demands of the environmental movement, that need to be surmounted before booming labor demands can turn into gains for labor.

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Oil and natural gas activity has grown dramatically over the last decade around the United States because, in part, of increased use of unconventional technologies like hydraulic fracturing. Social scientists have examined the broad array of impacts of this growth to communities disproportionately impacted by activity. This paper contributes to that work by using survey and qualitative interviews to examine the experiences of Coloradans with harm created by oil and gas activity when they live adjacent to production or extraction sites. Using a green criminological and critical criminological framing, our findings illuminate that Coloradans in these samples experienced persistent and patterned harm from oil and gas activity to which they lived proximate. Additionally—paralleling criminological literature on street crime—our findings indicate that official state records on harm prevalence is likely inaccurate and that, instead, a “dark figure” of harm exists. This results because of underreporting of harm by those who experience it which occurs in part, at least for those in our sample, because of a lack of trust or sense of fairness in the regulatory process.

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The rapid expansion of unconventional oil and gas development (UD), made possible by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, has triggered concerns over groundwater contamination and public health risks. To improve our understanding of the risks posed by UD, we develop a physically based, spatially explicit framework for evaluating groundwater well vulnerability to aqueous phase contaminants released from surface spills and leaks at UD well pad locations. The proposed framework utilizes the concept of capture probability and incorporates decision-relevant planning horizons and acceptable risks to support goal-oriented modeling for groundwater protection. We illustrate the approach in northeastern Pennsylvania, where a high intensity of UD activity overlaps with local dependence on domestic groundwater wells. Using two alternative models of the bedrock aquifer and a precautionary paradigm to integrate their results, we found that most domestic wells in the domain had low vulnerability as the extent of their modeled probabilistic capture zones were smaller than distances to the nearest existing UD well pad. We also found that simulated capture probability and vulnerability were most sensitive to the model parameters of matrix hydraulic conductivity, porosity, pumping rate, and the ratio of fracture to matrix conductivity. Our analysis demonstrated the potential inadequacy of current state-mandated setback distances that allow UD within the boundaries of delineated capture zones. The proposed framework, while limited to aqueous phase contamination, emphasizes the need to incorporate information on flow paths and transport timescales into policies aiming to protect groundwater from contamination by UD.

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Epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation may vary in response to environmental stressors and introduce adaptive or maladaptive gene expression within and among wild bird populations. We examined the association between DNA methylation and demographic characteristics of the Louisiana Waterthrush Parkesia motacilla in territories with and without disturbance from shale gas development in a Central Appalachian watershed during 2013–2015. We also evaluated the degree to which an individual’s methylated state was subject to change across years in individuals that returned over the course of more than one breeding season (i.e. recaptures). Overall, population methylation differed between adult male and female Waterthrush where adult males generally had fewer methylated restriction sites. Methylation also differed between adult females and nestlings. Age influenced methylation in both adult males and females with a decrease in methylation with age, although adult female recaptures had increased methylation with age. Adult males were variably methylated between shale gas undisturbed and disturbed areas at a population and restriction site (i.e. loci) level, where restriction sites were predominately less methylated in shale gas-disturbed areas. Barium (Ba) and strontium (Sr) data from 2013 feather samples showed adult males had fewer methylated sites at higher concentrations of Ba and Sr, whereas nestlings displayed no correlation of methylation to Ba and Sr concentrations. Adult females displayed increased methylation with increased Sr, a trend also seen year to year in adult female recaptures. Overall, results of our study suggest sex-specific influences of shale gas development on gene expression that may affect long-term population survival and fitness.

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The anti-fracking movement (AFM) in Bulgaria, was a successful grassroots local-to-national organizing effort to change public policy. The study draws on social movements, community psychology, and grassroots democracy theory to explore, describe and critique how participants in the AFM collectively constructed meanings and practices of organizing in interaction with the sociopolitical context as they expanded their efforts from the local to the national level of policy-making. Data for the study were collected from semi-structured interviews with activists, movement documents, and participant observations. Structured and open coding followed by qualitative analyses produced descriptions and explanations of grassroots democracy in the movement. The movement was based on a prefigurative vision and practice of an antihierarchical “civic society” and was also shaped by the demands of the Bulgarian political context. Power, consent, and participation had dynamic meanings and forms that secured both grassroots democracy and effective political action. Тhe AFM resisted well-known mechanisms of hierarchization and co-optation, but it also reproduced certain inequalities of power. The findings relate to recent trends for expansion of community organizing to the national level of politics, for expansion of the community organizing models outside the United States, and for a popular grassroots preference for anti-organizational organizing.

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Abstract. Over the past decade, the United States has seen a rapid increase in oil and gas extraction from areas where resources were previously thought to be

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AbstractBackground. Recent advancements in drilling technology led to a rapid increase in natural gas development (NGD). Air pollution may be elevated in these

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We use broadband seismic data collected within 3 km of a hydraulic fracturing (HF) well in northeast British Columbia, Canada, to estimate the stress drop values of HF-induced earthquakes and their spatial variation. Applying both spectral ratio and clustered single-spectra fitting methods to 484 induced earthquakes (M-1.0 to 3.0), we find that earthquakes close to the injection well have lower stress drops than those at greater distance. Stress drop values are generally invariant within clusters either proximal ( 0.1-1 MPa) or distal ( 1-10 MPa) to the well, suggesting that dynamic ruptures in rocks with similar rheological properties tend to have relatively constant stress drop values. Clustered single spectrum fitting also suggests that the seismic quality factor (Q) is lower proximal to the well. We interpret the lower stress drop values and higher seismic attenuation proximal to the well as a result of higher fracture density and/or elevated pore pressure in the rock matrix due to hydraulic stimulation.

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Risky energy technologies are often controversial and debates around them are polarized; in such debates public acceptability is key. Research on public acceptability has emphasized the importance of intrapersonal factors but has largely neglected the influence of interpersonal factors. In an online survey (N = 948) with a representative sample of the United Kingdom, we therefore integrate interpersonal factors (i.e., social influence as measured by social networks) with two risky energy technologies that differ in familiarity (nuclear power vs. shale gas) to examine how these factors explain risk and benefit perceptions and public acceptability. Findings show that benefit perceptions are key in explaining acceptability judgments. However, risk perceptions are more important when people are less familiar with the energy technology. Social network factors affect perceived risks and benefits associated with risky energy technology, hereby indirectly helping to form one's acceptability judgment toward the technology. This effect seems to be present regardless of the perceived familiarity with the energy technology. By integrating interpersonal with intrapersonal factors in an explanatory model, we show how the current “risk–benefit acceptability” model used in risk research can be further developed to advance the current understanding of acceptability formation.

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Background:Prior studies suggest exposure to oil and gas development (OGD) adversely affects birth outcomes, but no studies have examined flaring—the open combustion of natural gas—from OGD.Objectives:We investigated whether residential proximity to flaring from OGD was associated with shorter gestation and reduced fetal growth in the Eagle Ford Shale of south Texas.Methods:We conducted a retrospective cohort study using administrative birth records from 2012 to 2015 (N=23,487N=23,487$N=\mathrm{23,487}$) and satellite observations of flaring activity during pregnancy within 5km5km$5\mathrm{km}$ of maternal residence. Multivariate logistic and linear regression models were used to estimate associations between four outcomes (preterm birth, small-for-gestational age, continuous gestational age, and term birthweight) and exposure to a low (1–9) or high (≥10≥10$\ge 10$) number of nightly flare events, as compared with no exposure, while controlling for known maternal risk factors. We also examined associations with the number of oil and gas wells within 5km5km$5\mathrm{km}$ using data from DrillingInfo (now Enverus).Results:Exposure to a high number of nightly flare events was associated with a 50% higher odds of preterm birth [odds ratio (OR)=1.50odds ratio (OR)=1.50$\text{odds ratio (OR)}=1.50$ (95% CI: 1.23, 1.83)] and shorter gestation [mean difference=−1.9mean difference=−1.9$\text{mean difference}=-1.9$ (95% CI: −2.8−2.8$-2.8$, −0.9−0.9$-0.9$) d] compared with no exposure. Effect estimates were slightly reduced after adjustment for the number of wells within 5km5km$5\mathrm{km}$. In stratified models these associations were present only among Hispanic women. Flaring and fetal growth outcomes were not significantly associated. Women exposed to a high number of wells (fourth quartile, ≥27≥27$\ge 27$) vs. no wells within 5km5km$5\mathrm{km}$ had a higher odds of preterm birth [OR=1.31OR=1.31$\text{OR}=1.31$ (95% CI: 1.14, 1.49)], shorter gestation [−1.3−1.3$-1.3$ (95% CI: −1.9−1.9$-1.9$, −0.8−0.8$-0.8$) d], and lower average birthweight [−19.4−19.4$-19.4$ (95% CI: −36.7−36.7$-36.7$, −2.0−2.0$-2.0$) g].Discussion:Our study suggests exposure to flaring from OGD is associated with an increased risk of preterm birth. Our findings need to be confirmed in other populations. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP6394

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Background:Studies suggest associations between oil and gas development (OGD) and adverse birth outcomes, but few epidemiological studies of oil wells or inactive wells exist, and none in California.Objective:Our study aimed to investigate the relationship between residential proximity to OGD and birth outcomes in California.Methods:We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 2,918,089 births to mothers living within 10 km of at least one production well between January 1, 2006 and December 31, 2015. We estimated exposure during pregnancy to inactive wells count (no inactive wells, 1 well, 2–5 wells, 6+ wells) and production volume from active wells in barrels of oil equivalent (BOE) (no BOE, 1–100 BOE/day, >100 BOE/day>100 BOE/day$>100\text{\hspace{0.17em}BOE}/\text{day}$). We used generalized estimating equations to examine associations between overall and trimester-specific OGD exposures and term birth weight (tBW), low birth weight (LBW), preterm birth (PTB), and small for gestational age birth (SGA). We assessed effect modification by urban/rural community type.Results:Adjusted models showed exposure to active OGD was associated with adverse birth outcomes in rural areas; effect estimates in urban areas were close to null. In rural areas, increasing production volume was associated with stronger adverse effect estimates. High (>100 BOE/day>100 BOE/day$>100\text{\hspace{0.17em}BOE}/\text{day}$) vs. no production throughout pregnancy was associated with increased odds of LBW [odds ratio (OR)=1.40(OR)=1.40$\left(\text{OR}\right)=1.40$, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14, 1.71] and SGA (OR=1.22OR=1.22$\text{OR}=1.22$, 95% CI: 1.02, 1.45), and decreased tBW (mean difference = −36 grams, 95% CI: −54, −17), but not with PTB (OR=1.03OR=1.03$\text{OR}=1.03$, 95% CI: 0.91, 1.18).Conclusion:Proximity to higher production OGD in California was associated with adverse birth outcomes among mothers residing in rural areas. Future studies are needed to confirm our findings in other populations and improve exposure assessment measures. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5842

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The development of unconventional natural gas in China is facing three new situations: market-oriented pricing reform, intensified competition in state subsidies, and reduced production capacity growth, which may cause the development of unconventional natural gas to be on the edge of economic feasibility. Therefore, the definition of economic limit is even more important. In this paper, through analysis on the historical prices, outputs, and subsidy policies of three unconventional natural gases, methods to estimate future prices, subsidies, and outputs of unconventional natural gas are designed in this paper based on the mean reversion model and the generalized Weng model, respectively; fuzzy data are processed by using probability density function combined with a discounted cashflow method to improve the utilization of original data; the economic limit model for well depth, well spacing, and gas recovery rate is designed through break-even analysis with the subsection function of drilling cost to well depth, the modified Cher Card Geoff empirical formula of recovery ratio to well spacing, as well as the fitting formula of gas recovery rate and stable production time. This model is applied in the case of Deep CBM Block Ji 4&10. According to the estimation and case calculation, in future China, the subsidies for unconventional natural gas will gradually decrease and the gas output will significantly increase, with shale gas taking the leading position and CBM gradually declining; the economic limits of well depth, well spacing, and gas recovery rate of Ji 4&10 are 2,203.2 m, 300 m × 300 m and 469 m × 469 m, and 2.1% and 4.3%, respectively, under the economic infeasibility probability of 90%, and the overall economic infeasibility probability is 58%, indicating that the development of this block is subject to great risks and careful consideration needs to be given.

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Abstract. The response of microbial communities to releases of hydraulic fracturing flowback and produced water (PW) may influence ecosystem functionalities. H

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Recent advances in shale gas development have largely outpaced efforts to manage associated waste streams that pose significant environmental risks. Wastewater management presents significant challenges in the Marcellus shale, where increasing fluid volumes concomitant with expanding development will threaten to overwhelm existing infrastructure over the next decade. In this work, we forecast growth in drilling, flowback, and produced fluid volumes through 2025 based on historic data and consider conventional and alternative disposal options to meet future demands. Specifically, we demonstrate the logistical and environmental advantages of repurposing depleted oil and gas wells for dedicated injection of wastewater that cannot otherwise be reused or recycled. Hubs of depleted wells could accommodate projected increases in wastewater volumes more efficiently than existing disposal options, namely treatment and discharge at centralized facilities or dedicated brine injection in Ohio, primarily because the proximity of depleted wells to active production sites would substantially reduce wastewater transport distances and associated costs. This study highlights the need to reevaluate regional-scale shale wastewater management practices in the context of evolving wastewater qualities and quantities, as strategic planning will result in more socially and economically favorable options while avoiding adverse environmental impacts that have overshadowed the environmental benefits of natural gas expansion in the energy sector.

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Shale gas extraction has attracted great attention, especially in China, following its energy transition toward decarbonization, while the fast-expanding shale gas industry faces serious challenges related to water scarcity and water contamination. Quantitative investigations of the impacts of shale gas production on water scarcity and water contamination contribute to public awareness that shale gas production will worsen the water resource shortage. This paper presents a comprehensive water footprint (WF) assessment to improve understanding of the water sustainability and availability in shale gas industry. A detailed process water footprint model was used to quantify precisely the potential water consumption and environmental impacts. The full water use chain in the shale gas industry was examined, from the water used for well drilling and equipment maintenance, to the injection of hydraulic fracturing fluids and the disposal of the produced water. The results indicate that the historical water consumption ranged from 633.23 m3/segment to 2,292.90 m3/segment, totaling nearly 4.54 × 106 m3 for 120 wells. The projections of the estimated total WF for the constructed production period 2018–2020 and stable production period 2021–2030 were 3.30 × 107 m3/year and 5.21 × 107 m3/year in the Changning play, accounting for 10.12% and 15.98% of the average annual runoff of the Changning River, respectively, and 3.19 × 108 m3/year and 6.38 × 108 m3/year in all of the plays in China, accounting for 0.25% and 0.50% of the total national industrial water consumption in China in 2017 (1.28 × 1011 m3), respectively. The grey WF was the main contributor, accounting for 94.50% to the total WF, suggesting that water quality issues should be highly emphasized and that this footprint has a significant impact on the pollution of the water bodies near shale gas sites. These findings provide a valuable insight in understanding water consumption process in shale gas industry that can be employed to develop water resource and wastewater treatment management strategies and indicate that water resource contamination will restrict shale gas development and different effective alternative forms of management strategies, laws or regulations regarding water resources should be implemented to alleviate water resource and environmental burdens.

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Northeast British Columbia (BC) Canada, is a region in which natural gas production has undergone rapid development since 2007. We used nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) data products of the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) to assess the impact of natural gas development activity on air quality in this region from 2005 to 2018. We noticed that values of both pollutants were elevated in the immediate vicinity of large emission sources within the Montney formation and Horn River Basin – regions, which have experienced an increase in unconventional natural gas activities. Places with elevated NO2 Vertical Column Densities (VCDs) are Fort St. John, Taylor, and Dawson Creek located in the Montney formation, and higher SO2 VCDs are found near the Fort Nelson gas plant situated in the Horn River and Liard Basin areas. Although all the OMI data products consistently reported relatively high NO2 VCDs in the same areas, VCD values vary substantially with data products largely due to differences in Air Mass Factor (AMF) calculations. The rate of increase in NO2 VCDs and mass between 2005 and 2018 in the Dawson Creek area was assessed at 2.34% yr−1 and 4.32% yr−1, respectively, and these rates of change are statistically significant. Although we obtained an overall increasing trend for NO2 in Northeast BC, we also noticed a decreasing trend in the period of 2011–2013, which may be attributed, in part, to compliance and enforcement of regulations concerning flaring activities from oil and gas activities in Northeast BC, or due to less development activities. From our analysis, we suggest that the current air quality monitoring network in Northeast BC should be expanded to capture the spatial distribution of SO2 by deploying one additional station near Fort Nelson equipped with meteorology and SO2 monitoring systems.